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MASSACHUSETTS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dr. Arthur W. Gilbert

Commissioner

BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

AND OTHER NEW ENGLAND STATES

BY

EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH

PART I. WATER BIRDS, MARSH BIRDS AND

SHORE BIRDS

Elustrated with Colored Plates from Drawings by LOUIS AG-ASSIZ FUERTES

AND

Figures and Cuts from Drawings and Photographs by THE AUTHOR AND OTHERS

ISSUED BY AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATURE 1929

Copyright, 1925,

BY THE

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS

Reprinted October, 1928 Reprinted August, 1929

Norfoooti $«83

J. S. Cushins* Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS, DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

The economic value of birds to the people of the Commonwealth has been long con. sidered important. This Commonwealth has recognized its importance by devoting a special division of the Department of Agriculture to the study of birds and their relatione to the activities of its people. But Massachusetts citizens value birds, not merely foz their usefulness in destroying insect pests or in bringing profits or affording sport — we also regard them highly for their esthetic value and the joy they bring into our lives. There is therefore every reason for the State to interest itself in their study and protection.

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is fortunate in having the services of one of the country's foremost authorities in economic ornithology, Edward Howe Forbush. Mr. Forbush is known to a wide public through his able and authoritative writings, and his many articles in magazines and newspapers. Two books, Useful Birds and Their Protection, and Game Birds, Wild-Fowl and Shore Birds, both written by him and published by the State, have proven very popular and valuable. The former has run through three editions, the latter through two editions, and both are now out of print.

Mr. Forbush inaugurated a new epoch in bird study when he began to issue on behalf of the State his monthly bulletins. These summarized the reports he received every month from numerous correspondents in this and other New England states, as well as Canada and along the North Atlantic seaboard, and gave new knowledge of the effect of storms, cold waves and the like on the distribution and movements of birds. More recently hitherto unknown facts revealed by bird-banding have been reported in these bulletins.

The ripe fruits of his life work in the field of ornithology are now being incorporated in The Birds of Massachusetts. This is the first complete and comprehensive work on the birds of this State. It marks notable advances in our knowledge of the local dis- tribution of species and handles the recondite subject of molts and plumages.

There is reason to believe that this work when completed in the three volumes with colored plates by Fuertes, the foremost ornithological artist in this country, will con- stitute a notable contribution to the literature of ornithology, and will afford a valuable source of reference to all students of birds as well as bird lovers.

Arthur W. Gilbert, Commissioner.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2011 with funding from

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http://www.archive.org/details/birdsofmassachus01forb

PREFACE

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts never has issued any publication containing full descriptions and colored plates of the birds recorded within its boundaries. In 1839 a report was made to the Great and General Court of Massachusetts by Rev. William B. O. Peabody, which contained a list of the birds of Massachusetts with annotations on two hundred and eighty-six species. In 1864 the Massachusetts State Board of Agri- culture published, in connection with the eleventh annual report of its Secretary for the year 1863, an annotated list of two hundred and eighty-seven species, prepared by Mr. Edward A. Samuels. The Commonwealth also assisted Mr. Samuels in publishing the Birds of New England (1870) by purchasing and distributing a considerable number of copies of the work.

In 1907 the first edition of Useful Birds and Their Protection containing brief de- scriptions of a part of the birds of the State was issued by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. In 1912 the first edition of A History of the Game Birds, Wild- fowl and Shore Birds of Massachusetts and Adjacent States was issued by the same agency of the Commonwealth. Both of these works, however, were chiefly economic and treated only a part of the birds of the Commonwealth, stressing their utility and the means of conserving them.

Many papers on the birds of Massachusetts have been published within the last fifty years, notably the Birds of Massachusetts, by Messrs. Reginald Heber Howe Jr., and Glover M. Allen, but most of them are mere local lists with annotations, and not one of them contains adequate descriptions or colored plates of the species. The de- mand for such information as plates and descriptions alone can furnish has grown in- sistent with the years. Not only do people of rural communities seek such knowledge ; the great and increasing army of bird students also requires it.

Birds may be ranked among the noblest forms of life. Experience has shown that without special protection at the hands of man many species are likely to become extinct. Some of those that are hunted as game now need special care. Licenses to hunt certain birds within the borders of the Commonwealth are issued to citizens annually, and the number of such hunters now approximates one hundred thousand. Probably most of these hunters would be unable to recognize all the birds that they are privileged to shoot under their licenses, to say nothing of the large number of species that are protected by law. Many people who hunt birds desire such information concerning them as it is purposed to include in the present volume. The book is intended, therefore, to fill a long-felt want.

VJ PREFACE

The objects of the work are : (1) to interest the general public of Massachusetts and New England in birds and their rational conservation, (2) to provide our citizens with a means of identifying birds in the field or in the hand, (3) to furnish such other information regarding birds as the people desire and need. Long experience as State Ornithologist in answering their questions has perhaps qualified the author in some degree for the latter service.

The author is under great obligation to Mr. John A. Farley for editing the volume and for constant assistance and advice ; to Messrs. Samuel Henshaw and Outram Bangs for the privilege of examining specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College ; to Mr. James Peters at the Museum for assistance there, and to Drs. Harry C. Oberholser and C. W. Richmond for extending similar privileges at the National Museum at Washington ; also to Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood, of the Field Museum, Chicago, and Drs. Frank M. Chapman and Jonathan D wight, of the American Museum, New York, all of whom have freely offered the privileges of the collections under their charge. Mr. W. Sprague Brooks, of the Boston Society of Natural History, also granted the privilege of examining his collection, as did Messrs. Frederic H. Kennard and A. Cleveland Bent. Mr. Kennard also furnished many notes, including the field notes of the late Mr. F. B. McKechnie, and Mr. Bent has been extremely kind and helpful in many ways. Col. John E. Thayer tendered the use of his great collection of North American birds and their nests and eggs. Dr. B. H. Warren of Pennsylvania contributed many notes and much useful information, including weights of many game-birds. Mr. W. L. McAtee sent proof sheets of his "Local Names of Migratory Game Birds." The following persons from various New England states have given valuable aid in various ways : Messrs. Arthur H. Norton of Maine ; Karl A. Pember and George L. Kirk of Vermont ; Herbert Parker, Aaron C. Bagg, Winthrop Packard, Albert A. Cross, Charles L. Whittle, Laurence B. Fletcher, Joseph A. Hagar and F. H. Scott of Massachusetts ; Harry S. Hathaway of Rhode Island ; C. W. Vibert, Wilbur Smith, Aretas A. Saunders, Lester W. Smith and E. W. Schmidt of Connecticut. Dr. Arthur A. Allen of Cornell University has contrib- uted photographs and notes.

Mr. Arthur Stubbs and many others have submitted field notes or migration data, and about 400 correspondents, many of them official observers in ornithology for the Massa- chusetts Department of Agriculture, have contributed notes on the migrations and habits of birds. The author is greatly indebted to Mr. Louis Agassiz Fuertes, the artist, who has illustrated this volume, for cordial cooperation and assistance and the use of field notes in respect to the colors of the soft parts of water birds. The J. Horace McFarland Co. and D. Appleton and Co. have kindly furnished some electrotypes and permitted their use.

Permission to quote from the Practical Handbook of British Birds should be acknowl- edged. Ornithologists everywhere are indebted to Messrs. H. F. and G. Witherby, who have produced this excellent handbook which contains much original work by specialists. Acknowledgment should also be given to the following persons and publishing firms for

PREFACE Vli

authority to quote from or refer to the publications set against their names : Dr. Joseph Grinnell, The Game Birds of California ; Mr. Ralph Hoffmann, A Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York ; Dr. Charles W. Townsend, Audubon's Labrador and other publications; The Marshall Jones Co., Dr. Townsend's Beach Grass; Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist, and Bird- Lore ; L. C. Page and Co., Key to North American Birds ; Dr. Glover M. Allen and Mr. Reginald Heber Howe Jr., The Birds of Massachusetts; Mr. Howe and Mr. Edward Sturtevant, The Birds of Rhode Island ; The University Society, Birds of America. The Editor of The Nation and The Athenaeum gives permission to quote from an article by Mr. J. B. Mas- singham.

Mr. J. H. Fleming, of Toronto, has placed the author under great obligation by revis- ing the geographical distribution of the species.

It remains to acknowledge the services of those who have given advice and informa- tion on technical subjects: Dr. Witmer Stone, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and Drs. H. C. Oberholser and T. S. Palmer, of the Biological Survey, have been especially kind in this regard.

From the inception of the undertaking, the members of the Department of Agriculture have consistently supported the project. Dr. Arthur W. Gilbert, Commissioner of Agriculture, has strongly advocated the necessary appropriations before legislative committees, and has given the author that constant and cordial support without which the publication would have been impossible.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION xix

Class AVES. Birds 1

Subclass CARINAT.E : Keel-breasted, Toothless Birds 1

Order PYGOPODES. Diving Birds 2

Suborder COLYMBI. Grebes 2

Family COLYMBID.E. Grebes 2

Colymbus holbcelli. Holbcell's Grebe .4

Colymbus auritus. Horned Grebe . 8

Podilymbus podiceps. Pied-billed Grebe . . 11

Suborder CEPPHI. Loons and Auks , 16

Family GAVIID.E. Loons 16

Gavia immer. Loon 17

Gavia arctica. Black-throated Loon ......... 25

Gavia pacifica. Pacific Loon ........... 26

Gavia stellata. Red-throated Loon 28

Family ALCID^E. Auks, Murres and Puffins 30

Subfamily FRATERCULINtE. Puffins 30

Fratercula arctica arctica. Puffin . . . . 31

Subfamily ^ETHIIN^]. Auklets, Murrelets, Guillemots .35

Cepphus grylle. Black Guillemot .......... 35

Subfamily ALCIN^E. Auks and Murres 38

Uria troille troille. Murre 38

Uria lomvia lomvia. Briinnich's Murre 40

Alca torda. Razor-billed Auk 43

Subfamily ALLIN.E. Dovekies . ■ 46

Alle alle. Dovekie 46

Order LONGIPENNES. Long-winged Swimmers 49

Family STERCORARIID.E. Skuas and Jaegers 50

Catharacta skua. Skua . . . . . . . • . . . .50

Stercorarius pomarinus. Pomarine Jaeger 52

Stercorarius parasiticus. Parasitic Jaeger , 55

Stercorarius longicaudus. Long-tailed Jaeger ........ 58

Family LARIDiE. Gulls and Terns 59

Subfamily LARIN.E. Gulls 59

Pagophila alba. Ivory Gull 60

Rissa tridactyla tridactyla. Kittiwake 62

Larus hyperboreus. Glaucous Gull • . .64

Larus leucopterus. Iceland Gull 66

Larus kumlieni. Kumlien's Gull .......... 67

Larus marinus. Great Black-backed Gull . . . • • • .69

Larus argentatus. Herring Gull . .72

ix

x CONTENTS

PAGE

Larus delawarensis. Ring-billed Gull 80

Larus atricilla. Laughing Gull 82

Larus franklini. Franklin's Gull 87

Larus Philadelphia. Bonaparte's Gull 89

Larus minutus. Little Gull . . .91

Xema sabini. Sabine's Gull . 93

Subfamily STERNINjE. Terns 95

Gelochelidon nilotica aranea. American Gull-billed Tern 95

Sterna caspia imperator. Coues' Caspian Tern 97

Sterna maxima. Royal Tern .... 99

Sterna sandvicensis acuflavida. Cabot's Tern 101

Sterna forsteri. Forster's Tern 103

Sterna hirundo. Common Tern 105

Sterna paradissea. Arctic Tern 115

Sterna dougalli. Roseate Tern „ . . . .118

Sterna antillarum. Least Tern 122

Sterna fuscata. Sooty Tern 126

Chlidonias nigra surinamensis. Black Tern 128

Family RYNCHOPID.E. Skimmers 129

Rynchops nigra. Black Skimmer 130

Order TUBINARES. Tube-Nosed Swimmers 134

Family HYDROBATID.E. Fulmars, Shearwaters and Petrels 134

Subfamily FULMARINtE. Fulmars 135

Fulmarus glacialis glacialis. Fulmar 135

Daption capense. Pintado Petrel . 138

Subfamily PUFFININ.E. Shearwaters and Petrels 139

Puffinus borealis. Cory's Shearwater 139

Puffinus gravis. Greater Shearwater 140

Puffinus griseus. Sooty Shearwater 142

Pterodroma hasitata. Black-capped Petrel 144

Subfamily PROCELLARIINtE. Storm Petrels 144

Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa. Leach's Petrel 145

Subfamily OCEANITIN^E. Long-legged Storm Petrels 149

Oceanites oceanicus. Wilson's Petrel ......... 149

Order STEGANOPODES. Totipalmate Swimmers 153

Family SULID^E. Gannets 153

Sula leucogastra. Booby . 154

Moris bassana. Gannet 155

Family PHALACROCORACID^. Cormorants 158

Phalacrocorax carbo. Cormorant . . . . . . . . .158

Phalacrocorax auritus auritus. Double-crested Cormorant 160

Family PELECANID^E. Pelicans 163

Pelecanus erythrorhynchos. White Pelican 164

Pelecanus occidentalis. Brown Pelican ......... 166

Family FREGATID.E. Man-o'-war-birds 170

Fregata aquila. Man-o '-war-bird 171

Order ANSERES. Lamellirostral Swimmers 173

Family ANATID^E. Ducks, Geese and Swans 174

CONTENTS XI

PAGE

Subfamily MERGING. Mergansers 175

Mergus americanus. Merganser ........... 176

Mergus serrator. Red-breasted Merganser 181

Lophodytes cucullatus. Hooded Merganser . 187

Subfamily ANATIN.E. River Ducks 190

Anas platyrhyncha. Mallard 190

Anas rubripes rubripes. Red-legged Black Duck . 194

Anas rubripes tristis. Black Duck 195

Chaulelasmus streperus. Gadwall 199

Mareca penelope. European Widgeon . 202

Mareca americana. Baldpate 205

Nettion crecca. European Teal 209

Nettion carolinense. Green-winged Teal . 211

Querquedula discors. Blue-winged Teal 214

Tadorna tadorna. Sheld-duck 217

Spatula clypeata. Shoveller 218

Dafila acuta tzitzihoa. American Pintail 222

Aix sponsa. Wood Duck 225

Subfamily FULIGULIN^. Sea Ducks 231

Marila americana. Redhead . 231

Marila valisineria. Canvas-back 234

Marila marila. Scaup Duck . 237

Marila affinis. Lesser Scaup Duck .......... 241

Marila collaris. Ring-necked Duck 243

Glaucionetta clangula americana. Golden-eye 246

Glaucionetta islandica. Barrow's Golden-eye . 250

Charitonetta albeola. Buffle-head 252

Clangula hyemalis. Old-squaw 255

Histrionicus histrionicus histrionicus. Harlequin Duck . . . . . . 259

Somateria mollissima borealis. Northern Eider ....... 263

Somateria mollissima dresseri. Eider 264

Somateria spectabilis. King Eider 268

Oidemia americana. Scoter 271

Oidemia deglandi deglandi. White-winged Scoter ....... 274

Oidemia perspicillata. Surf Scoter 277

Erismatura jamaicensis. Ruddy Duck . . . . . . . . . 280

Nomonyx dominicus. Masked Duck 283

Subfamily ANSERINE. Geese 284

Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus. Snow Goose 285

Chen hyperboreus nivalis. Greater Snow Goose ....... 286

Chen cserulescens. Blue Goose 288

Anser albifrons gambeli. White-fronted Goose . . . . . . . 290

Anser brachyrhynchus. Pink-footed Goose . . . . . . . . 292

Branta canadensis canadensis. Canada Goose . 292

Branta canadensis hutchinsi. Hutchins' Goose ....... 295

Branta bernicla glaucogastra. Brant . . . . . . . . . 296

Branta nigricans. Black Brant . . . . .... . . . 300

Branta leucopsis. Barnacle Goose . . . . . . . . . .301

xij CONTENTS

PAGE

Subfamily CYGNIN^E. Swans 302

Cygnus columbianus. Whistling Swan 302

Cygnus buccinator. Trumpeter Swan 304

Order HERODIONES. Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc. . . 307

Suborder IBIDES. Spoonbills and Ibises . . . 307

Family THRESKIORNITHIDjE. Ibises 307

Guaraalba. White Ibis 307

Plegadis falcinellus. Glossy Ibis 309

Suborder CICONLE. Storks, etc 312

Family CICONIIDiE. Storks and Wood Ibises 312

Subfamily MYCTERIINyE. Wood Ibises .312

Mycteria americana. Wood Ibis .......... 312

Suborder HERODII. Herons, Egrets, Bitterns, etc. 314

Family ARDEIDyE. Herons, Bitterns, etc 314

Subfamily BOTAURIN^. Bitterns 315

Botaurus lentiginosus. Bittern .......... 315

Ixobrychus exilis. Least Bittern .......... 321

Ixobrychus neoxenus. Cory's Least Bittern ........ 323

Subfamily ARDEINjE. Herons and Egrets 323

Ardea herodias herodias. Great Blue Heron . . . . . . . . 324

Casmerodius egretta. Egret ........... 328

Egretta candidissima candidissima. Snowy Egret ....... 330

Florida caerulea. Little Blue Heron .......... 332

Butorides virescens virescens. Green Heron ........ 334

Nycticorax nycticorax nsevius. Black-crowned Night Heron . . . ... 336

Nyctanassa violacea. Yellow-crowned Night Heron ...... 342

Order PALUDICOL.E. Cranes, Rails, etc . 344

Suborder GRUES. Cranes, Courlans, etc 344

Family GRUID^. Cranes 344

Grus americana. Whooping Crane .......... 345

Grus canadensis. Little Brown Crane 347

Grus mexicana. Sandhill Crane . 348

Suborder RALLI. Rails, Gallinules, Coots, etc 351

Family RALLID^E. Rails, Gallinules and Coots 351

Subfamily RALLIN^E. Rails 351

Rallus elegans. King Rail 352

Rallus crepitans crepitans. Clapper Rail 354

Rallus virginianus. Virginia Rail 355

Porzana Carolina. Sora ............. 357

Coturnicops noveboracensis. Yellow Rail ........ 360

Creciscus jamaicensis. Black Rail 361

Crex crex. Corn Crake 363

Subfamily GALLINULIN.E. Gallinules 364

Ionornis martinicus. Purple Gallinule 364

Gallinula chloropus cachinnans. Florida Gallinule . . . . . . . 366

Subfamily FULICIN^. Coots . 369

Fulica americana. Coot 369

Order LIMICOL^E. Shore Birds . 371

CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

Family PHALAROPODID^E. Phalaropes ......... 372

Phalaropus fulicarius. Red Phalarope 372

Lobipes lobatus. Northern Phalarope . . . . . . . . . 375

Steganopus tricolor. Wilson's Phalarope 377

Family RECURVIROSTRIDiE. Avocets and Stilts 379

Recurvirostra americana. Avocet 380

Himantopus mexicanus. Black-necked Stilt ........ 382

Family SCOLOPACIDiE. Snipes, Sandpipers, etc. . . 385

Subfamily SCOLOPACIN^E. Woodcocks and Snipes 385

Scolopax rusticola. European Woodcock ........ 385

Rubicola minor. Woodcock ........... 385

Gallinago delicata. Wilson's Snipe 391

Subfamily CANUTINyE. Sandpipers and Godwits 395

Limnodromus griseus griseus. Dowitcher ........ 396

Limnodromus griseus scolopaceus. Long-billed Dowitcher 398

Micropalama himantopus. Stilt Sandpiper 400

Calidris canutus. Knot 402

Arquatella maritima maritima. Purple Sandpiper - . 404

Pisobia maculata. Pectoral Sandpiper . 406

Pisobia fuscicollis. White-rumped Sandpiper ........ 408

Pisobia bairdi. Baird's Sandpiper 410

Pisobia minutilla. Least Sandpiper 412

Pelidna alpina alpina. Dunlin 414

Pelidna alpina sakhalina. Red-backed Sandpiper . 416

Erolia ferruginea. Curlew Sandpiper . . 417

Ereunetes pusillus. Semipalmated Sandpiper 419

Ereunetes mauri. Western Sandpiper 422

Crocethia alba. Sanderling 423

Limosa fedoa. Marbled Godwit . 427

Limosa hsemastica. Hudsonian Godwit ......... 429

Philomachus pugnax. Ruff . . . . . . . . . . .431

Tryngites subruficollis. Buff-breasted Sandpiper 433

Subfamily NUMENIIN.E. Tattlers and Curlews 435

Totanus melanoleucus. Greater Yellow-legs 435

Totanus flavipes. Yellow-legs . . . . . . . . . . 438

Tringa solitaria solitaria. Solitary Sandpiper . . . ... . . . 440

Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus. Willet 443

Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus. Western Willet 445

Bartramia longicauda. Upland Plover ......... 447

Actitis macularia. Spotted Sandpiper ......... 450

Numenius americanus. Long-billed Curlew . . . . . . . . 453

Numenius hudsonicus. Hudsonian Curlew ........ 455

Numenius borealis. Eskimo Curlew ......... 457

Family CHARADRIID^. Plovers 459

Squatarola squatarola cynosurae. American Black-bellied Plover .... 459

Pluvialis dominica dominica. Golden Plover . . . . . . . . 462

Oxyechus vociferus. Killdeer ........... 465

Charadrius semipalmatus. Semipalmated PloVer 468

Xiv CONTENTS

PAGE

Charadrius melodus. Piping Plover 470

Pagolla wilsonia wilsonia. Wilson's Plover ........ 473

Podasocys montanus. Mountain Plover ......... 474

Family APHRIZID^. Surf Birds and Turnstones 476

Subfamily ARENARIIN.E. Turnstones . . ' . . . . . . .476

Arenaria interpres interpres. Turnstone ......... 476

Arenaria interpres morinella. Ruddy Turnstone 478

Family ILEMATOPODID,E. Oyster-catchers 479

Haematopus palliatus. Oyster-catcher ......... 479

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES

Plate 1.

Plate 2.

Plate 3.

Plate 4.

Plate 5. land Gull

Plate 6. Gull

Plate 7.

Plate 8. Least Tern ................

Plate 9. Leach's Petrel — Wilson's Petrel — Sooty Shearwater — Greater Shearwater — Cory's Shearwater — Fulmar

Plate 10. Cormorant — Double-crested Cormorant — Gannet ..... Hooded Merganser — Red-breasted Merganser — Merganser .... Mallard — Black Duck — Red-legged Black Duck — Gadwall Baldpate — European Widgeon — Green-winged Teal — European Teal — Blue

Horned Grebe — Holbcell's Grebe — Pied-billed Grebe

Red-throated Loon — Loon ..........

Black Guillemot — Puffin — Razor-billed Auk — Dovekie — Brunnich's Murre

Long-tailed Jaeger — Parasitic Jaeger — Pomarine Jaeger — Skua .

Great Black-backed Gull — Glaucous Gull — Kittiwake — Kumlien's Gull — Ice

Herring Gull — Ring-billed Gull — Sabine's Gull — Bonaparte's Gull — Laughing

Black Skimmer — Sooty Tern — Caspian Tern — Royal Tern .... Arctic Tern — Roseate Tern — Forster's Tern — Common Tern — Black Tern —

FACES PAGE

2 16 30 50

Plate 11.

Plate 12.

Plate 13. winged Teal

Plate 14.

Plate 15. Duck .

Plate 16.

Plate 17.

Plate 18.

Plate 19.

Plate 20.

Plate 21.

Plate 22.

Wood Duck — American Pintail — Shoveller . Canvas-back — Redhead — Lesser Scaup Duck

Scaup Duck — Ring-necked

58

72 96

104

134 152 174 190

202 218

232 246 260 272 284 292 306

Old-squaw — Buffle-head — Golden-eye — Barrow's Golden-eye .

King Eider — Northern Eider — Harlequin Duck — Eider ....

American Scoter — White-winged Scoter — Surf Scoter — Ruddy Duck

White-fronted Goose — Greater Snow Goose — Blue Goose ....

Whistling Swan — Canada Goose — Brant — Black Brant ....

American Bittern — Green Heron — Least Bittern — Glossy Ibis — Cory's Bittern

Great Blue Heron — American Egret — Black-crowned Night Heron — Snowy

Egret — Little Blue Heron 324

Plate 23. King Rail — Virginia Rail — Yellow Rail — Black Rail — Clapper Rail — Sora . 352 Plate 24. Coot — Red Phalarope — Purple Gallinule — Florida Gallinule — Wilson's

Phalarope — Northern Phalarope 364

Plate 25. Woodcock — Wilson's Snipe — Dowitcher 384

Plate 26. Purple Sandpiper — Knot — Stilt Sandpiper — Pectoral Sandpiper . . . 400 Plate 27. Red-backed Sandpiper — Baird's Sandpiper — White-rumped Sandpiper . . 410

Plate 28. Semipalmated Sandpiper — Sanderling — Least Sandpiper 418

Plate 29. Hudsonian Curlew — Long-billed Curlew — Eskimo Curlew — Marbled Godwit —

Hudsonian Godwit 426

Plate 30. Spotted Sandpiper — Solitary Sandpiper — Greater Yellow-legs — Yellow-legs . 436

XVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FACES PAGE

Plate 31. Willet — Upland Plover — Western Willet — Buff-breasted Sandpiper . . . 442 Plate 32. Oystercatcher — Killdeer — ■ American Black-bellied Plover — American Golden

Plover 458

Plate 33. Ruddy Turnstone — Wilson's Plover — Piping Plover — Semipalmated Plover . 468

FIGURES

Fig. 1. Pied-billed Grebe on Nest 12

Fig. 2. Nest and Eggs of Loon 12

Fig. 3. Young Ivory Gull 60

Fig. 4. Gull-billed Tern on Eggs 60

Fig. 5. Young Herring Gulls 78

Fig. 6. Nest of Herring Gull 78

Fig. 7. Head of Laughing Gull 86

Fig. 8. Head of Franklin's Gull 86

Fig. 9. Primaries of Laughing Gull and of Franklin's Gull 86

Fig. 10. Head of Male Masked Duck 86

Fig. 11. Head of Female Masked Duck 86

Fig. 12. Young Roseate Tern 118

Fig. 13. Nest of Common Tern 118

Fie. 14. Young Least Tern 122

Fig. 15. Eggs of Least Tern 122

Fig. 16. Pintado Petrel or Cape Pigeon 138

Fig. 17. Black-capped Petrel 138

Fig. 18. Male, Female and Young of Booby 154

Fig. 19. Head of Man-o '-war-bird 154

Fig. 20. White Pelican 164

Fig. 21. Brown Pelican . 164

Fig. 22. Sheld Duck 216

Fig. 23. Nest of Black Duck 216

Fig. 24. Nest and Eggs of Canada Goose 296

Fig. 25. Nest and Eggs of Brant 296

Fig. 26. Head of Wood Ibis 312

Fig. 27. White Ibis 312

Fig. 28. Green Heron and Nest 334

Fig. 29. Yellow-crowned Night Heron and Nest 334

Fig. 30. Young Woodcocks 390

Fig. 31. Nest of Woodcock 390

Fig. 32. Curlew Sandpiper ............ 432

Fig. 33. Ruff 432

Fig. 34. Eggs of Piping Plover in situation . . . 466

Fig. 35. Nest and Eggs of Killdeer 466

CUTS IN THE TEXT

PAGE

Map showing courses of six storm centers connected with incursions of southern birds into New

England ................ xx

Map showing places of recovery of young Night Herons banded at Barnstable .... xxiv

Topography of a duck showing terms used in describing birds in this volume .... xxix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV11

PAGE

Topography of outer or upper surface of spread wing of a shore bird ..... xxx

Topography of inner or under surface of wing . . . . . . . . . xxx

Method of measuring length, folded wing and tarsus xxxi

Method of measuring bill .............. xxxi

Method of measuring tail .............. xxxi

Foot of grebe 3

Downy young of Pied-billed Grebe 11

Foot of Loon 16

Downy young of Loon 18

Pacific Loon 26

Downy young Black Guillemot .36

Head of Murre 38

Head of Brunnich's Murre 38

Position of Brunnich's Murre under water ........... 41

Diagram showing position and progress of Brunnich's Murre under water and position of ob- server .................. 42

Forward stroke and back stroke of Razor-billed Auk . . . . . . . . .44

Attitudes of young Herring Gulls 76

Downy young of Laughing Gull ............ 83

Head of adult Little Gull in breeding plumage . . . . . . . . . .91

Head of young Little Gull 91

Head of Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis . . . . , . . . . . . . 101

Downy young of Common Tern 106

Terns fishing ................ 108

Common Tern from nestling to last stage of the down Ill

Half-grown Least Tern "hiding" . . . . . . . . . . . .124

Young Least Terns with their mother ........... 125

The first meal — young Least Tern . . . . . . . . . . . .125

Bill of merganser ............... 175

Foot of river duck 190

Downy young of Black Duck 196

Axillars of Baldpate and axillars of European Widgeon 202

Downy young of Wood Duck . 226

Foot of sea duck 231

Bills of Eiders 263

Movements and positions of Ruddy Duck under water . . . . . . . . 282

Head of Barnacle Goose 301

Head of Whistling Swan, and outlines of bill and forehead seen from above .... 303

Head of Trumpeter Swan, and outlines of bill and forehead seen from above .... 305

Night Herons in the tree-tops ............. 338

Young Night Herons beginning to climb ........... 339

The goal of the climbers — young Night Herons ......... 339

The use of the head in climbing under difficulties — - young Night Heron ..... 339

Result of inexperience in climbing — young Night Heron ........ 340

Whooping Crane ............... 345

Head of Little Brown Crane ............. 347

Sandhill Crane 349

Corn Crake 363

Xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Foot of Coot 369

Foot of Red Phalarope 373

Foot of Northern Phalarope 375

Foot of Wilson's Phalarope 377

Avocet ... . .380

Black-necked Stilt 383

Tail of Pectoral Sandpiper ............. 407

Tail of Baird's Sandpiper „ 411

Foot of Semipalmated Sandpiper ............ 419

Downy young of Spotted Sandpiper . . . . . . . . . . . .451

Axillars and first primary of Long-billed Curlew ......... 453

Axillars and first primary of Hudsonian Curlew ......... 455

Axillars and first primary of Eskimo Curlew .......... 457

Downy young Killdeer .............. 466

Downy young Piping Plover ............. 471

Piping Plover, young and egg ............. 472

Young Piping Plovers leaving nest ............ 472

Head of Mountain Plover 475

INTRODUCTION

When the task of preparing a work on the birds of Massachusetts was undertaken, the fact became apparent at once that practically all the birds of New England must be included. There are very few species recorded in New England which have not been taken in Massachusetts and these few are mere accidental visitors. A glance at the map of New England shows that Massachusetts lies directly across the region and is contiguous to every other state except Maine, the southwestern boundary of which is only about fifteen miles from the northeastern border of Massachusetts. Migratory birds passing through New England in their northward and southward flights naturally go through or over Massachusetts and many of them remain for a time within her borders. The long outreaching arm of Cape Cod extends farther out to sea than any other of the outlying coasts of these states. Many water-birds cross it or land upon it, and seabirds from far- away islands and waters are likely to be blown there by hurricanes. Many shore-birds, which in their autumnal migrations reach South America largely by sea, are deflected and driven on the Massachusetts coast by such storms.

The so-called West Indian hurricanes that occasionally move northward near the Atlantic coast of the United States are so violent as to carry birds many hundreds of miles. If one of these gales occurs at a time when birds are migrating over waters lying in its course, it is likely to be followed by the appearance along our coast of birds rarely seen there.

The following notes regarding the relation of West Indian hurricanes to irruptions of birds from the south were prepared for this volume by Mr. James Mackaye :

" Southern storms coming up the Atlantic coast from the Gulf region are of the usual revolving type, but are divided into two classes : (1) storms which are part of the general west-east drift of cyclonic areas, and (2) West Indian hurricanes which are unique in movement and usually in violence. These last originate normally eastward of the Gulf of Mexico, moving at first from east to west, and then as a rule recurve in a wide sweep and pass out in a northeasterly direction over the Atlantic. Their tracks are sometimes far at sea, sometimes close to the coast, and sometimes partly over the land.

"Prof. E. B. Garriott, in his monograph on 'West Indian Hurricanes' (Bulletin H of

the Weather Bureau) lists 95 such hurricanes between the years 1878 and 1900 inclusive,

distributed throughout the year as follows :

Month Number

May 1

June 3

July 3

August 25

September 25

October 32

November 3

December 3 Total 95

XX

INTRODUCTION

Map showing courses of six storm centers connected with incursions

of southern birds into New England. Dates indicate time of nearest

approach of centers to Massachusetts.

INTRODUCTION XXI

Of these storms 76 recurved in the manner described, making an average of three or four hurricanes a year (mostly in late summer or autumn) traveling along or near the Atlantic coast.

"Examination of the records of southern birds * to be found in this volume discloses five fairly definite incursions into New England or vicinity since the organization of the Weather Bureau. These were in 1876, 1878, 1879, 1893 and 1924.

"The map shows the paths of the storms most closely connected with these five sudden invasions, and the table shows the correlation (in time) between the several storms and the corresponding incursions. It will be observed that, with the exception of the invasion of the Glossy Ibis in May, 1878, all were probably due to West Indian hurricanes. That particular spring irruption was doubtless caused either by the storm of April 5, which closely resembled a West Indian hurricane in its characteristics, or by the abnormally moving storm of May 5, combined with the south winds which prevailed all along the coast for some days previous to that date — most likely to the latter.

"The extraordinary flight of Killdeers in November, 1888, referred to on page 467, was closely connected with the most violent of the three November hurricanes recorded by Garriott, and the only one which, on account of its severity, he singles out for special description as an example of the violent action and stress of such storms. He says : ' On the morning of the 27th of November the center was just off the New England coast ; on the afternoon of the same day it had passed into Maine,' l and 'on the after- noon of . . . November 28 . . . several flocks of Killdeer were seen ... on the extreme point of Cape Elizabeth, Maine. ... On the following day . . . hundreds of the Plovers were to be seen along the shores of the Cape.' 2

"During this storm, which caused losses of millions of dollars, a barometric pressure below 29 inches was recorded, and a wind velocity of 84 miles an hour.

"The only (two) definite records of the very rare Man-o-war-bird contained in this volume were unmistakably associated with severe storms. In October, 1876, a normally moving storm coming from the west-southwest developed high winds along the coast, and snow fell as far south as North Carolina. On the 15th the storm center reached Nova Scotia and the Halifax Man-o-war-bird f was taken on the 16th. On October 14, 1893, the center of a West Indian hurricane passed over Buffalo, N. Y., the nearest point of its passage to Massachusetts, and the New Bedford Man-o-war-bird f was taken October 17th.

"That the severity of a storm is an important factor in bringing birds from the South is indicated by many facts cited elsewhere in this volume,3 and also by the fact that the hurricanes of September, 1876 and August, 1879 and 1893, which presumably brought the irruptions of those years, are among the limited number cited by Garriott as 'important/

* By southern birds are meant such as breed in the South.

1 Garriott, E. B. : "West Indian Hurricanes," Bulletin H, Weather Bureau, 1900, p. 41.

a Brown, Nathan Clifford : Auk. Vol. VI, 1889, p. 69.

fSeep. 172.

3 See pages 127, 131, 132, 144, 171, 172.

XXII

INTRODUCTION

from their severity and destructive effects on life and property. The April storm of 1878 was not classed by Garriott as a hurricane, and the August hurricane of 1924 oc- curred much later than his publication. That both were violent, however, the latter notably so, is well attested by the records. The incursion of the Glossy Ibis in 1850 * and the accompanying great storm are not included in this summary because they occurred before the establishment of the Weather Bureau."

Relation between Storms and Incursions op Southern Birds into New England and

Vicinity since 1876.

Date of Arrival op Storm Center At Point Nearest to Massachusetts	Date, Place and Species op First Bird Recorded in Incursion	Species op Southern Birds Re- ' corded During Incursion
Sept. 18, 1876	Sept. 20, 1876 Granby, Conn. Sooty Tern1	Sooty Tern
April 5, 1878 or t May 5, 1878	May 4, 1878 Eastham Glossy Ibis	Glossy Ibis
Aug. 18, 1879	Aug. 19, 1879 Sandwich, Woods Hole Black Skimmer	Black Skimmer
t Aug. 29, 1893	Aug. 28, 1893 Oneida Lake, N. Y. Black-capped Petrel	Black-capped Petrel Black Skimmer
Aug. 26, 1924	Aug. 26, 1924 Nantucket Black Skimmer	Black Skimmer Sooty Tern Oyster-catcher

The exact manner in which these great disturbances bring southern birds to our shores must be largely a matter of conjecture, but from the known facts regarding the progress of the storms some assumptions may be made.

These hurricanes, moving north as they do, naturally carry with them any birds flying in their path. It may be assumed theoretically that the influence of such great disturb- ances on southern sea-birds is exerted in the following manner: The wind revolves around the storm center in a direction opposite to the course of the hands of a watch held in a horizontal position. The effect of this revolving gale is felt at a great distance from

* See pages 310, 311.

lSage, Bishop & Bliss: Birds of Connecticut, 1913, p. 24.

t In comparing these dates with those adjoining in column 2 it should be borne in mind that at any given latitude the high winds caused by northward moving storms begin to blow before the arrival of the storm centers at that latitude.

INTRODUCTION XXlii

the center, and the wind velocity is said to reach at times over 100 miles an hour at sea. Probably no bird can long face a gale blowing 60 to 70 miles an hour. As the storm center at sea usually moves first toward the Atlantic coast north of the Caribbean sea, birds flying over waters that lie south of the center but at some distance from it and under the full influence of the gale would be carried first eastward out to sea, then northward and finally as the storm center moved north along the coast would be driven in from the southeast, east or northeast upon the shore, provided they lived to reach it. Others nearer the storm center might be carried more than once around it before reaching land. Birds migrating at or near the center of the disturbance probably would be caught in the tremendous upward draught there, and might be carried to great heights. Only birds of powerful flight would be likely to withstand the storm, and small land birds driven to sea by one of these hurricanes probably would never see land again. Sea-birds caught near the surface by hurricanes are sometimes crumpled up and driven into the sea. In many cases birds cast ashore during these storms are completely exhausted, and in some cases many die of exhaustion after they reach the shore. Such storms probably account for most of the accidental occurrences of sea-birds on the coasts of Massachusetts.

Northward movements of storm-driven southern birds should not be confused with migratory flights of birds that move north commonly in summer from their nesting places. Birds have a tendency to wander after the nesting season, and although the general trend of migration then is southward, many birds are prone to move first in various directions. It is at this season that certain birds are most likely to appear north of their breeding-grounds. Some of the herons apparently regularly do this. For example : Little Blue Herons and Egrets in small numbers go far north of their breeding places after their nesting time. Black-crowned Night Herons also show a tendency to move- ment in that direction and specimens have been taken three or four hundred miles north of their known breeding place. The map (page xxiv) and the data given with it show in part the movements of banded and identified birds from a Night Heronry in Barnstable.

Massachusetts is diversified in physical features which range from the sandy shores and dunes of Cape Cod, Essex and Ipswich to the fertile fields of the Connecticut Valley, and from the rocky coast of the North Shore to the high forested hills of Berkshire County in its extreme western area. Its natural features provide suitable feeding places and (in many cases) breeding-grounds for birds that can live in any part of New England. Birds that rarely breed north of southern Connecticut sometimes come up the Connecticut Valley into Massachusetts ; birds that breed in northern Maine pass through Massachu- setts in migration or come here in winter. Most of the water birds and shore birds breed outside of New England. As the present volume deals only with such birds, we are now concerned chiefly with their haunts while in migration, namely : the water, swamp, marsh and shore areas. Therefore the life zones of New England birds will not be treated here, but will be given in the introduction to the second volume.

New England is blessed with a very extensive shore line. Including her island coasts and all the various indentations in her shores, the coast line measures about 2,372 miles.

XXIV

INTRODUCTION

MAP SHOWING PLACES WHERE BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERONS WERE

RECOVERED.*

Birds banded in June, 1923 (marked with round dots)

Aug. 17, 1923 East Deering,

Me. Aug. 22, 1923 New Holland,

Pa. Aug. 27, 1923 Napanooh,

N. Y. Aug. 29, 1923 Newburyport,

Mass. Aug. 31, 1923 Montpelier.Vt. Sept. 1, 1923 Oka, P. Q.,

Can. Sept. 9, 1923 Quebec, P. Q.,

Can. Sept. 26, 1923 Springvale, Me. Oct. 9, 1923 Swansboro,

N. C. Nov. 1, 1923 Amherst Is.,

Ont., Can. Nov. 15, 1923 Mathews, La. Nov. — , 1923 Hanover, Ja- maica, W. I

Dec. 25, 1923	Lee County,	1	D..--T"
	Fla.	\ /
Birds banded	in June, 1924	\ 1 t	h — r
(marked with square dots)	i /
July 24, 1924	Mashpee, Mass.	^ i
Aug. 3, 1924	Harrison, Me.
Aug. 8, 1924	Sandwich, Mass.	i J	/\
Aug. 21, 1924	Lewistown, Pa.	i vr"	— V
Aug. 22, 1924	Albany, N. Y.	i L""
Aug. 26, 1924	Van Bruyssel,
	P. Q., Can.
Sept. 1, 1924	Laconia, N. H.
Sept. 14, 1924	Ipswich, Mass.
Sept. 29, 1924	Bois Blanc, P. Q., Can.
Nov. 5, 1924	Erie, Mich.
Nov. 17, 1924	Key West, Fla-
Nov. 29, 1924	Moore Haven,

Fla. Nov. 30, 1924 Inverness, Fla. Dec. 10, 1924 Valona, Ga. — , 1924 Sutton Jet.,

P. Q., Can. Jan. 1, 1925 Back Bay, Va. Jan. 13, 1925 Back Bay, Va.

The birds were banded as nestlings at Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1923 and 1924, by members of the Northeastern Bird Banding Association. The location of the heronry is in the center of the circle at the right.

* The recovery of a banded bird means the taking of the bird at some locality other than that at which it was banded.

INTRODUCTION XXV

New England is a well watered country. A late atlas maps 4,926 streams and 3,967 lakes and ponds. In addition to these there are very many small streams, " pond holes," "sloughs," and pools that do not appear on any map of the region. Also in spring, when water-fowl are migrating northward, the water surface is often much augmented by the flooding of swamps, river meadows and low fields, and there are thousands of rain-water or snow-water pools in low spots in pastures and fields which may attract wild-fowl. In late summer, the season of drought, the lowering waters uncover flats and bars in lakes and rivers and thus expose feeding-grounds for shore birds. Along the coasts of New England there are many extensive salt-marshes and flats which are bared daily by the recession of the tides. There are also many pools and tidal streams in these marshes and on these flats which contain at times an abundant food supply for both marsh and aquatic birds. In the lower river valleys much marshland borders the streams, and both on the coastal plain and in the interior former shallow lakes and ponds have, in the course of time, filled with growing and decaying vegetation, and now form wooded swamps or sedgy marshes attractive to marsh birds. Nature therefore has provided bountifully for her feathered children of the shores, waters and marshes, and if New England has not now an adequate supply of water-birds in their seasons it is the fault of the inhabitants, who, with their neighbors to the north and south, have reduced the numbers of these fowls and driven them away by wanton and continuous persecution and slaughter. We have only to turn to the records left us by some of the chroniclers of early exploration and settlement in Massachusetts to learn of the myriads of swans, geese, brants, ducks, shore birds and marsh birds that once flocked in their seasons along our coasts. Undoubtedly the principal inland waters also teemed with them, and though our modern civilization will never see such sights again, there has been considerable increase under recent pro- tective laws, and conservation methods may, in time, greatly multiply the numbers of these birds.

The coastline of New England and the larger river valleys running north and south are great highways for the migrations of water birds. Many birds in their northward flight pass along the coast on the way to their boreal breeding-grounds. Some, like the Brant, follow the shore to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and then strike across the country to Hudson Bay and so on to the Arctic regions. Others fly along the coast only until they reach the rivers of Maine and then turn northward up the river valleys and through the lake regions. Still others veer to the north near where the Connecticut shore bends eastward and so pass up the valley of the Hudson or that of the Connecticut. Lake Champlain, a part of the Hudson River route, lies largely in Vermont and is responsible for bringing many water birds into that state ; but the Connecticut Valley is the principal inland highway of bird migration lying within the New England states. Passing as it does through western Massachusetts, it is of particular interest to the Massachusetts ornithologist. The river from source to mouth runs 360 miles to the sea, traversing the entire length of two states, between which it forms the boundary, and crossing two more, thus becomes

XXVi INTRODUCTION

the chief waterway of New England.1 The general direction of its flow is slightly west of south. The valley is bounded by many landmarks ; high hills on either hand serve to mark the way, with the winding, shining river ever in view. The Merrimack River in New Hampshire and the Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot, St. Croix, St. John and Allegash in Maine together with the Maine lakes offer other routes by which water birds may reach the Canadian provinces.

It is unfortunate for those who delight in field study of birds that many people living in the interior know so little about the water birds. These birds are not so common or accessible inland as land birds, and constant persecution has made them shy, but on most of the larger lakes and rivers as well as on smaller bodies of water some of them may be found in their seasons, and there are now a considerable number of lakes or reservoirs which are public reservations where shooting is not allowed. In such places water birds soon become comparatively unsuspicious and may be rather closely approached. On most large bodies of water in retired situations, some of these birds may be watched with binoculars or a telescope during the seasons of migration.

Thus far this introduction has dealt with New England as a country fitted for the sojourn of water birds, and both the usual and extraordinary conditions which favor their occurrence here. It now remains to give some explanation of the plan of the book itself.

The technical names of birds used in this volume are mainly those of the Third Edition of the Check-List of North American Birds issued by the American Ornithologists' Union and the various supplements thereto published later in The Auk. The syno- nyms given in the vernacular under the heading "Other Names" are chiefly such as are used in New England.

In the descriptions the forms used by the eminent American ornithologists, Baird, Coues and Ridgway, have been largely followed. Technical verbiage has been omitted, however, as far as possible, in order that the ordinary reader may be able to understand the terms used without reference to the dictionary. A few terms, such as " primaries" and "secondaries" have been used as a matter of convenience. These are explained by cuts appended to the Introduction (see pages xxix and xxx). The descriptions are abridged to save space. Most of them have been compared with many specimens and prepared in such a way as to allow for a certain amount of individual variation. It has been impossible in the limited space allowed to describe all fixed and transitory stages of plumage, or to give complete descriptions in all cases, but it is hoped that those given will be sufficient, in connection with the illustrations, to enable the novice to identify most species. In certain cases, especially where young birds of different species or indi- viduals of different races closely resemble one another, the services of an expert ornithol- ogist will be required to distinguish them. This is unavoidable.

The measurements of birds were obtained from all convenient available sources, in-

» Bagg, A. C. : The Connecticut Valley — a Highway for Bird Migration. Auk, Vol. XL, 1923, pp. 256-275.

INTRODUCTION XXvii

eluding a large number of specimens, with the intention of approximating in most cases maximum and minimum measurements of each species.

The term "nuptial plumage" as used in this volume denotes a plumage worn during the mating season, but partially molted later in the breeding season, as in most ducks, cormorants and a few species of terns. In most adult ducks the full winter and spring plumage and the nuptial plumage are the same in most cases, while the eclipse plumage is assumed in summer. Male eiders in high plumage have a peculiar development of two outer tertials or inner secondaries, the end of the vane being much expanded and its shape changed. Probably this is found only during the nuptial season. This plumage is depicted on plate 17, while only the winter plumage is described, as that is the dress usually seen in New England. No specimens with the perfected tertials were available for description. The term "breeding plumage" indicates a plumage worn during the entire breeding season (including breeding and upbringing of young), as in most terns, gulls and many other birds. Some terns, however, have a full black cap in the nuptial season, a part of which is lost during the breeding season. In such cases the full black cap indicates nuptial plumage.

The colors of the soft parts of birds (bills, eyes, ceres, feet, etc.) are very variable. These colors may vary according to sex, and change from time to time with age and season. Some tints change immediately after death. The descriptions recorded by ornithologists differ widely regarding these colors. Some of these descriptions were taken from living birds in various stages, others from dead birds, and many from dried skins in which the colors of soft parts rarely approximate those of the living birds. Cor- rect descriptions of these colors and their variations would require study of the living birds for a long series of years. The author has been guided in his statements regarding these colors by his own observations and notes, by the notes of collectors and ornithologi- cal artists, especially those of Mr. L. A. Fuertes, who makes the colored drawings for the work, and by the descriptions of the most eminent and trustworthy ornithologists ; but information from all these sources is still inadequate. It was impossible to supply fully the demand for information about the molts of birds. Comparatively few people have made a study of this subject, and such knowledge as we have has come largely from exami- nations of dried skins of birds in museums. Unfortunately in American museums there are not enough specimens showing molt to enable one to complete the study, and there is so much individual variation in the matter of dates when molting begins or ends and the ages at which the young arrive at full maturity, that the facts are rather obscure and difficult to ascertain. Authorities differ more or less in statements regarding these mat- ters. The trapping and banding of birds, a comparatively new method of research in ornithology, provides a great opportunity for the study of molts by repeated examinations of the same individuals among living wild birds.

To assist the student, some of the most striking or readily discernible colors or markings of each species have been treated briefly in this volume under the head of "Field Marks."

In studying birds afield a knowledge of the notes and calls of the different species is as

xxviii INTRODUCTION

useful as an acquaintance with field marks. Syllables supposed to represent the more common vocal utterances of birds have been assembled in this volume under the heading of "Voice." Such transcriptions of birds' utterances leave much to be desired, and in most cases owe something to the imagination of the persons recording them, as different listeners often record the same notes in dissimilar words or syllables ; but when properly rendered vocally they will resemble in a greater or less degree the actual calls or cries of the birds, and may serve, together with the field marks, to fix both the identity of the bird and the sound of its notes in the mind of the observer. Usually it is impossible to record more than a few of the commonly heard calls of each species. There are many low or soft notes that rarely are heard by human ears.

As hereinbefore stated, most of the birds described in this volume do not breed in New England ; therefore the record of their breeding is in most cases brief and perfunctory. It has not been possible to ascertain the period of incubation of some or to procure certain other data in regard to them.

No measurements of eggs were taken, but their dimensions are those given by standard authorities and collectors. These measurements are not given always in uniform order, but are transcribed in each case in the original form.

The ranges are based upon those given in the Check-List of the American Ornitholo- gists' Union (Third Edition, 1910), but are modified by later information which brings them more nearly up to date, and are corrected to conform to changes in names and boundaries in Canadian territory — northern or northeastern Manitoba, for example, now is substituted in most cases for central Keewatin. Our knowledge of the geographic distribution of birds is very far from complete. Birds are great wanderers, and stragglers may appear at times at points very far from their regular habitats. The ranges as now recorded in unsettled regions are dependent not so much on the actual distribution of birds as on the distribution or wanderings of ornithologists. Our practical knowledge of the occurrence of birds in Arctic regions is derived from the explorations of very few persons, and we know little of the distribution of water-birds in northern Canada and much of South America. Doubtless the ranges of many species will be far better known in future years.

Information regarding the season during which each species may be found in Massa- chusetts was obtained in part from published records but mainly from notes furnished by a considerable number of observers. The dates are so arranged as to show as far as possible the seasons when the species may be reasonably expected here ; extreme dates and seasons when the species is rare are given in parentheses. The seasons in most cases will correspond more or less closely (according to distance) with the seasons of the same species in the other New England states.

Under "Haunts and Habits" is given as much of the biography of each bird, particu- larly during its sojourn with us, as space allows, including some items in respect to food and migrations.

Under "Economic Status" there is transcribed, as is required by the Act authorizing

INTRODUCTION

XXIX

the preparation of the work, some account of the utility of orders, families and species. Where little is known of the economic status of the species, reference usually is made to the page on which the economic status of the family is given.

In connection with the distribution of birds, a number of comparative terms are used to describe the numerical status of a bird in different regions or localities. These terms graduate from "accidental" to " very abundant" in the following order : (1) Accidental, (2) Casual, (3) Occasional, (4) Very rare, (5) Rare, (6) Uncommon, (7) Not uncommon, (8) Common, (9) Very common, (10) Abundant, (11) Very abundant. "Accidental" and "casual" have similar meanings according to the dictionary, but as used in this volume they describe different degrees of rarity.

Here the word "accidental" denotes a purely fortuitous occurrence, when the bird appears far outside the ordinary range of the species, while the word "casual" denotes a less rare appearance, occurring usually in migration outside of the regular migration route.

Many descriptive terms used in this work are explained by the cuts that follow. A glossary of terms together with a bibliography and an index of all three parts will be appended to the last volume.

fToslril

mi

Inner- loe. STlddlc loe

Outer toe.

Topography of a duck showing terms used in describing birds in this volume.

XXX

INTRODUCTION

Flight feathers

Topography of outer or upper surface of spread wing of a shore bird.

'Under- primary coverts First {outer) prirrtary

Axi liars or Ax.illa.ries

Topography of inner or under surface of wing.

INTRODUCTION

XXXI

. Length

Method of measuring length, folded wing and tarsus. The bird should be extended full length upon the back, without stretching, upon the ruler or steel tape. The wing measurement may be taken by pressing the wing flat upon a ruler, or by measuring along the outer surface of wing with a steel tape measure. The spread is taken by spreading the wings to full extent upon a flat surface, placing a mark at the tip of each wing and then measuring the distance. For reasons readily seen in practice this measure- ment is not very reliable.

Bill Method of measuring the bill from its tip to the feathers of the forehead. This is the length of the bill (the chord of the culmen or ridge). All bills of specimens treated in this volume are so measured unless it is otherwise stated under the measurements of a species. Some ornithologists measure bills with a tape carried along the culmen or ridge. In birds with hooked bills this method considerably increases the measurement.

Tail

Method of measuring the tail. One point of the dividers is placed between the roots of the two middle tail feathers and pressed to the skin, while the other touches the tip of the longest tail feather.

BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

CLASS AVBS BIRDS

Birds as a class have a close affinity to reptiles from which they are believed to have developed. Birds are distinguished from all other animals by their feathers which are modified scales.

The Class Aves has been divided into toothed and toothless birds, all of the former being long extinct and known to us only by their fossilized remains. Some so-called modern birds have toothed bills, but no real teeth.

Sub-Class Carinatce : Keel-Breasted, Toothless Birds

The birds of today are divided into two sub-classes : Ratitce, or raft-breasted, toothless birds, which includes flightless species like the Ostrich which have no keel to the breast bone, and Carinatce, or keel-breasted toothless birds, which have a thin keel-like projec- tion in the middle of the breast bone, to which the powerful breast muscles which help to move the wings are attached.

No species of the sub-class Ratitce are native to North America ; all North American species belong to the Carinatce.

According to the classification adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union, the Carinatas are divided into the following sixteen Orders: Pygopodes (Diving Birds), Longipennes (Long- winged swimmers), Tubinares (Tube-nosed swimmers), Steganopodes (Totipalmate swimmers), Anseres (Lamellirostral swimmers), Odontoglossa (Lamelliros- tral waders), Herodiones (Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc.), Paludicolce (Cranes, Rails, etc.), Limicolce (Shore Birds), Gallinos (Gallinaceous Birds), Columbce (Pigeons and Doves), Raptores (Birds of Prey), Psittaci (Parrots, Macaws, Paroquets, etc.), Coccyges (Cuckoos, etc.), Pici (Woodpeckers, Wrynecks, etc.), Macrochires (Goatsuckers, Swifts, etc.) and Passeres (Perching Birds). This last great order includes over half of all known birds. All these orders with the exception of Odontoglossce and Psittaci are represented among the birds of Massachusetts.

1

2 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Order PYGOPODES. Diving Birds.

Number of species in North America 32; in Massachusetts 11.

Birds of this order are formed especially for diving and swimming under water. Their bony framework is long and extends backward, enclosing the internal organs in such a way that they are protected from extreme pressure of water at great depths. The name of the order is derived from two Greek words signifying that the feet are attached to the hind parts. The legs are placed so far back and so buried in the body (in most species of this order) that the birds, when walking on land, are obliged to stand nearly erect. Most of them sit in this posture, squatting on the feet and tarsi, or else lie down, resting on the breast. Locomotion on land is ordinarily slow and difficult, but most species can move rapidly for a short distance when obliged to reach water. The toes are either webbed or lobed ; the tarsi more or less flattened. The wings are comparatively short, never reach- ing, when folded, to the end of the tail (which is either very short and of many feathers or merely rudimentary), and are used at times, with or without the feet, in progression beneath the surface. This under-water wing action may be employed either habitually or only occasionally to assist a bird in escaping from its enemies or in pursuing its speedy prey. The food of these birds consists largely of fish and other aquatic animal life, supplemented to some extent in many cases by aquatic vegetation. The Pygopodes, owing to their shortness of wing, find it difficult or even impossible to rise from a level land-surface ; when once in the air, however, most of them fly rapidly. The bill is hard and various in shape, but it is never widened laterally like that of ducks and geese, and is never lamellated. The plumage is dense; and when in good condition waterproof.

The order is divided into two suborders. The first (Colymbi) includes grebes (Co- lymbidce) having a rudimentary tail ; the second (Cepphi) comprises loons (Gaviidce) and auks, murres and puffins (Alcidce), with tail short but fully developed.

Suborder COLYMBI. Grebes. Number of species in North America 6 ; in Massachusetts 3.

Family COLYMBIMI. Grebes.

Number of species in North America 6 ; in Massachusetts 3.

Modern systems of biologic classification present first the lowest and simplest forms. In the present work, following the system of classification adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union, the grebes come first, as among North American birds they seem to rank nearest to the reptiles from which birds sprang. Grebes can stand nearly erect upon their feet, but when stranded on land and pursued there by an enemy, both old and young progress more or less on all fours like a turtle or a lizard. In swimming under water they sometimes use both wings and feet.

PLATE 1

PLATE 1

HORNED GREBE

Winter Plumage Adult in Breeding Plumage

HOLBCELL'S GREBE Page 4 Adult in Breeding Plumage

Winter Plumage

PIED-BILLED GREBE Page 11 Adult in Breeding Plumage

All one-fourth natural size.

■■■■■■"

^-.

GREBES 3

The characters of the family are the same as those of the suborder. Among them are the following : Body depressed or flat ; bill usually compressed, sharp-pointed, of vari- able length, either longer or shorter than head, ridge either nearly straight, a little con- cave or quite convex toward tip ; eyes far forward, with a narrow stretch of bare skin extending from each eye to the base of the upper mandible ; head usually adorned with crests or ruffs in the breeding season ; neck long and slender ; plumage compact, rather hair-like above, silky below ; when well dressed, waterproof, so that a grebe in good con- dition never gets wet to the skin ; wings short and concave with eleven developed prima- ries ; bastard quills and greater wing-coverts comparatively long ; tail rudimentary, with- out quills and practically useless ; legs so enclosed by the skin of the trunk that only the tarsi move freely ; feet especially adapted for swimming but different from those of other lobe-footed birds ; toes flattened and further widened by broad lobes, and connected in varying degrees by basal webs ; hind-toe elevated, lobed and free ; nails broad, flat and arranged on the toe somewhat like human nails. The whole foot forms a compound paddle which spreads on the back stroke and closes on the forward stroke. A vigorous grebe when held in the hand can work these paddles so fast that they seem a mere haze, like a hummingbird's wings in motion.

Many birds have air-cells in various parts of their bodies which communicate with their lungs. The ability to fill these air-cells as well as the lungs and to empty them at will may account in part for the manner in which grebes and other Pygopodes are able to Foot of a Grebe sink quietly below the surface without diving, or to float partly submerged. Their power to compress the feathers and thus to expel the air from be- neath them may also assist in this manceuver — in which perhaps the feet may some- times play a part. In flight the feet extend well out behind the tail, the place of which they seem to take in steering. Grebes are among the most aquatic of birds. They may be distinguished from ducks by the narrow sharp-pointed bill, narrow head and neck, tailless aspect and lobed feet.

A peculiar characteristic of this family is the habit of eating feathers. Kearton writes that his boatman on the Norfolk Broads, a capable and veracious observer, told him that the young of the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus) secure themselves on the back of the parent by seizing some of her feathers in their bills. This boatman (Alfred Nudd) once found a grebe chick with three feathers plucked from its parent's back and swallowed to the very base of their shafts. Kearton suggests that possibly thus the habit of feather- eating is formed and continued. Commonly when the stomach of a grebe is opened, many feathers are found.1

Dr. Alexander Wetmore in his "Food and Economic Relations of North American Grebes " describes the feathery mass which most grebes' stomachs contain and which consists of feathers, some of which are dislodged when preening and then devoured. He

1 Kearton, Richard : Our Rarer British Breeding Birds, 1899, p. 36.

4 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

says : "It may be suggested that the feathers act as a strainer to prevent the passage of fish-bones or large fragments of chitin into the intestine until they have been reduced to a proper size and condition by the process of digestion." J

Economic Status. Feeding as they do mainly on the smaller forms of aquatic life, animal and vegetable, grebes have but slight economic importance. "The results obtained by stomach examinations show that they do not depend wholly or even chiefly on fish. On the contrary they eat a large number of crawfishes, which often severely damage crops, and they consume numbers of aquatic insects, which devour small fishes and the food of such fishes." 2 Dr. Wetmore in his Bulletin No. 1196 (already cited) also holds that the suspicion that grebes are seriously detrimental to certain valuable fishes is without actual foundation in fact. Speaking of the large Western and Hol- bcell's Grebes he says : "But on the whole they cannot be considered actually injurious, as the kinds [of fish] eaten are in most cases of little or no value to man."

Colymbus holbcelli (Reinhardt). Holboell's Grebe.

Other name: red-necked grebe.

Plate 1.

Description. — Bill straight, tapering, long and rather slender. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Sometimes seen in spring in Massachusetts. Crests short and ruffs not prominent ; forehead, top of head and back of neck, greenish-black ; back brownish-black with slight grayish or buffy edgings to many feathers; wing-coverts and primaries chocolate-brown, latter with black shafts; secondaries mainly white with black shafts mostly, and brownish tips ; some if not all specimens have lesser upper wing-coverts more or less white (see small figure in plate 1) ; linings of wings and axillars whitish ; a broad well-defined patch of bright silvery-ash on chin, upper throat and sides of head, whitening along upper and posterior edges; lower throat and front and sides of neck deep brownish-red, which pales as it extends to breast; below glossy white, shaded with silvery-ash, each feather with dark shaft-line and terminal spot, producing a dappled appearance; sides mostly blackish; lower part of base of upper mandible and most of lower, yellowish (specimens taken in middle October had upper mandible greenish-black, lower greenish-yellow) ; tarsi and feet black on outer side, dull greenish-yellow sometimes mottled with bluish on inner side; "legs and feet black" (W. L. Dawson) ; most of lower mandible orange-yellow changing to greenish-yellow on lower edge of upper mandible ; iris always bright yellow (E. W. Nelson); iris carmine (Coues). (The difference in color of iris, thus re- corded by these and other authorities, probably is due to age or season ; colors of eye, bill and feet vary.) Adults in fall and winter plumage (as seen from October to April in Massachusetts) : Some individuals show change to breeding plumage in late February or early March; crests not noticeable; red of neck replaced by brownish-ash or dusky ; chin, throat, and cheeks pale grayish, sharply defined against dusky neck ; an upright whitish spot or bar on either side of back of head ; below mainly silvery-white ; bill mostly yellowish or greenish-yellowish, ridge and tip more or less dusky ; some if not all specimens with large patch of white on upper fore wing, mainly on lesser upper wing-coverts, extending from shoulder to middle forearm; secondaries chiefly white as in breeding plumage. Young in first winter plumage: Closely resemble winter adult but colors duller and not so pure ; chin and throat whiter but usually mottled dusky ; crown browner ; neck sometimes reddish, and sharply defined pattern of head so con-

1 United States Department of Agriculture, Department Bulletin No. 1196, 1924, p. 4.

2 McAtee, W. L., and Beal, F. E. L. : United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 497, 1912, p. 19.

GREBES 5

spicuous in adults much obscured ; iris dark brown, brownish-yellow or yellow ; outside of tarsi and feet blackish, inside more or less yellow. Downy young : Considerable variation but generally black above, fading later to blackish-brown or seal-brown ; white below when first hatched ; head and neck broadly striped black and white.

Measurements. — Length 18.00 to 20.75 in. ; spread 30.00 to 32.00 ; folded wing 7.00 to 8.00 ; bill 1.64 to 2.40; tarsus 1.90 to 2.50. Female smaller than male.

Molts. — Young birds acquire in September first real (juvenal) plumage which retains signs of youth on head and neck, both of which show stripes of black and white, while neck is more or less reddish ; stripes disappear during fall, but often reddish tint on neck retained through winter and until first nuptial plumage is acquired (A. C. Bent) ; Mr. Bent, who has studied the plumages of Holbcell's Grebe, believes immature birds become "indistinguishable from adults" at first postnuptial molt, when bird is one year old, but is not positive that another year is not required to complete change ; the various changes of color in plumage, eyes, feet and bill seem to indicate that more than one year may be required for this species to reach full maturity — in some cases at least ; adults have partial prenuptial molt in early spring, "involving mainly head and neck," and full postnuptial molt in autumn.

Field Marks. — Size less than Black Duck, much larger than other Massachusetts grebes, but much smaller than loons ; carries head horizontally like a loon ; in winter resembles Red-throated Loon, but is smaller and has no white spots on back ; neck thinner than that of any loon ; white wing-patch (which distinguishes it from loons) shows plainly in flight or when wing is flapped, but often is covered by body-feathers when wing is closed ; colors in winter similar to those of the smaller Horned Grebe, but cheeks not so shining white ; also adults have whitish upright spot toward back of head nearly surrounded by gray, which can be seen at close range (see plate 1).

Voice. — Love-notes in Manitoba begin with series of loon-like wailing cries, loud and piercing at first, running off into series of short, plaintive, vibrating wails — Ah-ooo, ah-ooo, ah-ooo, ah-ah-ah-ah; sometimes end in a staccato chattering trill — whaaa, whaaa, whaaa, whaaa, whaaa, whaaa, chitter-r-r-r-r-r (A. C. Bent) ; loud trumpetings suggest cries of loon (Mrs. Lizzie T. Burt) ; coarse, prolonged, nasal quonk suggests braying of donkey (P. M. Silloway) ; an explosive kup; an exceedingly harsh note not unlike voice of angry crow but much louder ; calls given more slowly, car, car, three or four times, some- times lengthened to caar, and again broken or quavering, like c-a-a-r or c-a-a-ar (William Brewster) ; note suggested by the syllables wit'-tah not loud but rather high, the first part higher than the second (Robert J.Sim); spring call, naar-ah-haah-hah ! naar-ah-haar-hah ! naar-ah-haar-hah ! (Miss Elizabeth Dickens).

Breeding. — In watery marsh or marshy lake. Nest: Built of marsh-grass, reeds, rushes, etc., usually among reeds or water brush, sometimes on muskrat house, sometimes floating, but attached to surrounding vegetation. Eggs: Generally 3 to 5, sometimes more, up to 8 ; size varying greatly, 2.10 to 2.35 by 1.25 to 1.45 in. ; ovate to narrow elongate ; whitish, bluish- or greenish-white to buff, but almost always stained and dirty. Dates: Throughout breeding range eggs found chiefly in June, and nearly all that month. Incubation: Period 22 or 23 days, when hatched in incubators (A. C. Bent). One brood yearly.

Range. — North America and eastern Asia. Breeds from northeastern Siberia, northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Ungava (northern Quebec), and Hudson Strait south to northern Wash- ington, North Dakota, southwestern Minnesota and southwestern New Brunswick ; winters mainly on Atlantic and Pacific coasts from Maine, southern Ontario, southern Wisconsin and southern British Columbia south to southern California, southern Colorado, Ohio Valley, North Carolina and casually Georgia and Tennessee ; in Asia south to Japan ; recorded in winter from Pribilof and Aleutian Islands and winters along coast of northern Pacific from Alaska to Washington.

Distribution in New England. — Fall and spring migrant, coast and interior, and regular winter resident coastwise; casual in winter in interior and generally rare to casual in spring and autumn on larger ponds, lakes and rivers.

Season in Massachusetts. — September 10 to May 25.

6 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Haunts and Habits. A bright clear day in January, a gentle breeze, a river mouth where the rippling flood flows into the sparkling sea, a lazy swell washing gently on the bar where a herd of mottled seals is basking in the sun, Old-squaws and Golden- eyes in small parties — such a scene at Ipswich is a fit setting for the great Grebe that winters on our coasts. Here we find the bird, nearly always shy and wary, resting low in the water, its head held horizontally much like that of a loon, alert, diving "like a flash" and ready for any eventuality. Sometimes, loon-like, it floats with its head held under water while spying below for its prey. First we see it, then it has vanished ! For nearly a minute we search the face of the waters in vain, when suddenly it reappears, but at a greater distance. Now as we hold the glass on it, it disappears again so quickly that we can hardly tell how it went. Like all grebes Holboell's often dives with a sudden forward spring, but it can let itself down into the water backward either slowly or swiftly. Several observers have reported that this species when diving remains under water about fifty-five seconds. Sometimes when alarmed it exposes only enough of its head to enable it to see, while keeping its body below the surface. It can do this for long periods, swimming so slowly and gently as to escape observation.

In Massachusetts Holboell's Grebe is usually the least common of the grebes, and stays mostly in wide waters where it can keep more than a gunshot from shore, but where no shooting is allowed, it becomes tame and unsuspicious. It may be seen off either rocky cliffs or sandy shores, and often is most common off isolated isles like Block Island or headlands like Nahant, where it sometimes gathers in numbers. Occasionally it is seen far out at sea. Sometimes in spring or autumn one or two individuals,, or even a small flock, may be met with in some of the larger fresh-water ponds, lakes or rivers of New England ; but otherwise the species is rather seldom seen in the interior of southern New England, except when severe cold waves freeze up the Great Lakes or other large lakes of States or Provinces to the westward in which, in ordinary seasons, many of the birds pass the winter. Such lakes are most often frozen over in February, when the winter tempera- ture of the water reaches the minimum. Then these wintering grebes must either remain to be frozen in or must climb out upon the ice where they lie helpless, as they cannot rise from the slippery surface ; or they must attempt to escape by flight from the fast-freezing lakes. In trying to reach the sea with wings unaccustomed to long flights, some become fatigued and fall or alight on the snow or ice in New England, eastern New York and New Jersey. Probably at such times individuals have fallen helpless in all the inland counties of Massachusetts, and doubtless many are never found and perish of starvation and cold. Many reach the sea but in a weakened condition. Miss Elizabeth Dickens, of Block Island, Rhode Island, informs me that in some seasons hundreds of these birds die along the shores of that island. During severe storms some are driven in from the sea and die miserably in extreme cold weather when they find no open water in the ponds.

Dr. Warren tells of an instance in Pennsylvania where an individual of this species dashed through the glass into a greenhouse. 1 It doubtless mistook the glass for water as

1 Warren, B. H. : Birds of Pennsylvania, 1890, p. 3.

GREBES 7

wearied Canada Geese, similarly deceived in a fog and storm, have been known to alight on the wet roof of a large shed covered with gray roofing felt.

Often when swimming in shallow water beneath the surface, Holbcell's Grebe uses only its feet, striking out with both at once and moving very rapidly ; but in clear, deep water where there are no obstructions, a frightened bird has been seen to use its wings vigor- ously and to dart about so swiftly that the eye could barely follow its movements.1 In ordinary swimming on the surface the lobed feet strike downward and outward much as a canoeman paddles. When the bird is really alarmed, it seldom flies, but dives at once.

This species stands well on its feet and can walk or run for short distances with the tarsi at an angle of about 45 degrees. Mr. Robert J. Sim had a captive specimen that slept on its breast with its head on its back and its feet entirely concealed under its wings.2 Mr. J. A. Farley has seen birds of this species apparently dozing on the water with head drawn in on the chest.

Holbcell's Grebe is most common along New England coasts and on the larger inland waters in migration in October and November and again in late March and early April. My only summer record for this species in New England is that of a lone bird at Isle au Haut, Maine, July 1, 1919, recorded by Dr. Chandler Foot. Possibly this bird was a cripple. In migration Holbcell's Grebe assembles in flocks, and now and then numbers appear where food is plentiful along our shores ; but usually in Massachusetts waters the species is rather solitary. In migratory flights along the coast it flies commonly not far above the water with head and neck extended and feet stretched out behind.

Mr. Wilbur F. Smith of South Norwalk, Connecticut, wrote to me March 27, 1916, that he had observed Holbcell's Grebes fishing near an anchored boat on which a fisher- man lived. The birds had become so fearless that they sometimes approached within a few feet of the boat. They fished all day, were fishing at ten p.m. when the fisherman retired, and were still fishing at daylight when he awoke. The fish taken, Mr. Smith says, were mainly little flounders found at the bottom, although one bird was seen with a large smelt. Mr. Smith noted that when a bird had swallowed a particularly large fish, it put its head on its back and went to sleep. This suggests that they feed day or night until satisfied, and then sleep. Herring Gulls bothered them repeatedly by attempting to snatch the fish from their bills, but the grebes by diving seemed usually to foil their tormentors. When feeding in salt water this fast swimmer overtakes the swiftest small fish. Occasionally it catches a fish too large to hold readily and swallow quickly, which wriggles away from the beak-hold. Then the eager bird dives "like a flash" and seizes its prey again. Sometimes it carries such a fish to shallow water where it strikes, pounds and slaps it about until the victim succumbs. Then the active bird throws its own head up and backward until it seems to strike the back and so works the fish down its widely distended throat. The food of this bird on salt water seems to consist largely of fish and

1 Cahn, Alvin R. : Auk, Vol. XXIX, 1912, p. 440. (See also Department Bulletin No. 8, Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, 1922, pp. 9-10.)

2 Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XVI (old series), 1904, p. 71.

8 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

crustaceans. Mr. Bent says that it can live in lakes where there are no fish. He as- serts that in Manitoba it lives largely on crayfish, amblystomse and aquatic insects, and that it takes tadpoles, aquatic worms, small crustaceans, mollusks and vegetable substances.1 It also takes earthworms and beetles. Economic Status. See page 4.

Colymbus auritus Linnaeus. Homed Grebe.

Other names: dipper; hell-diver; devil diver. Plate 1.

Description. — Bill straight and tapering. Adults in nuptial plumage (sexes alike) : Occasionally seen in late April or May in Massachusetts. Forehead, crown, chin and very full handsome ruff on sides of head below eyes glossy greenish-black ; brownish-yellow stripe over eye, widening and deepening in color toward end of long crest and darkening to chestnut between eye and bill ; above generally brown- ish-black, each feather pale edged ; primaries light chocolate-brown with pale brown inner webs and white bases, shafts black except at base; secondaries mainly white, "inner ones black with white tips and innermost white with black bases"; under surface of wing, except terminal half of primaries, largely white; neck (except dark stripe at back) and sides of body rich "chestnut," "reddish-brown," "brown- ish-red" or "purplish vinaceous-red," mixed with dusky on flanks; elsewhere below silky white; iris, carmine with fine white inner ring (sometimes even scarlet with irregular yellow ring, A. C. Bent) ; bill black, tipped yellow ; feet dusky on outer edges, the rest yellow or yellowish. Adults in fall and winter plumage (as commonly seen in Massachusetts). Similar but grayer; no noticeable ruffs or crests and no bright colors, but crown blackish and sides of head white ; some specimens have rufous markings behind eyes ; black of cheeks and red of neck replaced largely by silky white, lightly washed with ashy- gray on front and sides of neck and lower belly; some specimens have a second white wing-patch on upper fore wing, including more or less of lesser upper wing-coverts from shoulder to elbow, and extending slightly down on tertials, this white space often mottled with dusky. Young in first winter plumage : Similar but cheeks sometimes not so pure white and probably always without rufous markings behind eyes; bill smaller and lighter colored, usually dusky on ridge but elsewhere tinged olive, yellowish, orange, or sometimes bluish-white; outer sides of legs and bottoms of feet dusky, inner sides of legs and upper sides of feet much lighter, pearly-gray, greenish or yellowish. Downy young : Dusky, almost black above, striped and spotted grayish-white; white stripe on hind head and white V on forehead extending down on sides of neck ; sides of head, neck and throat white, sometimes tinged with salmon- buff, spotted and streaked dusky ; sides dusky ; below white.

Measurements. — Length about 12.50 to 15.25 in. ; spread about 24.00 ; folded wing 5.40 to 6.00 ; bill about .90; tarsus 1.60 to 1.75.

Molts. — First or juvenal plumage following natal down not unlike first winter plumage, but shows some dusky stripes and spots on head and throat ; first winter plumage shows some of these markings and in spring of second year after prenuptial molt adult plumage is assumed ; adults molt partially in late March, April and May and completely in autumn.

Field Marks. — Size of Green-winged Teal but head and bill smaller ; in nuptial plumage we have no grebe like it; in autumn adults may show some signs of breeding plumage on throat; in winter plumage its pure white fore neck, cheeks and underparts (white extending up from throat to nape), absence of brown in its plumage, its straighter, slenderer bill, and its conspicuous large white wing-patch (which

»The fullest life history of Holboell's Grebe has been written by Arthur Cleveland Bent in hia "Life Histories of North American Diving Birds," Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Bulletin No. 107, 1919. All North American diving birds are more exhaustively treated in this excellent bulletin than in any other work.

GREBES 9

always shows when wing is spread) distinguish it from the Pied-billed Grebe ; small size and short bill distinguish it from Holbcell's Grebe.

Voice. — Love-calls a wonderful combination of weird, loud, striking cries, a series of croaking and chattering notes followed by several prolonged, piercing shrieks (A. C. Bent) ; a curious far-sounding note of complaint, keogh, keogh, with a nasal twang or more sharply keark, keark or yark, yark (W. L. Dawson) ; in large companies there is a perpetual conversational undertone (Lynds Jones).

Breeding. — In rushy borders of ponds or sloughs or on their shores ; singly or in small colonies. Nest: Wet rotten reeds, flags or other rubbish and mud, often partly or wholly afloat but anchored to growing vegetation, sometimes on a tussock or on wet foreshore. Eggs: 3 to 5 and up, rarely 10; indistinguishable from those of Pied-billed Grebe. Dates: April 6 to August 12 in various parts of North America (A. C. Bent). Incubation : Period unknown. So far as known only one brood reared in a season ; wide variation in egg-dates may indicate two broods occasionally.

Range. — Northern parts of Northern Hemisphere. Breeds from near Arctic coast to northern United States, Maine, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, and northern Nebraska ; also in Iceland, northern continental Europe and Siberia; recorded in summer in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan and Indiana ; in the East, winters mainly from Maine and New York to Florida and Louisiana and on west coast from southern Alaska to southern California and southward; most interior winter records are from region of Great Lakes ; also winters in central and southern Europe, northern Africa and Azores, and on coasts of China and Japan to Tropic of Cancer ; casual in Greenland and in Bermuda and Com- mander Islands.

Distribution in New England. — Common fall and spring migrant and common winter visitant coastwise, especially common during mild winters ; irregular, sometimes common, in migration in interior waters ; breeds casually in northeastern Maine ; may have bred in Massachusetts and Connecticut.

Season in Massachusetts. — (September 14) October 1 to May 28 (July 6).

Haunts and Habits. In its full nuptial plumage the Horned Grebe is a handsome bird. In sunshine its ruffed and crested head and rich, deeply colored neck and flanks glow resplendent. Even in the modest dark and white plumage of winter in which it is usually seen in New England, with its pure, satiny white breast, it is delicately handsome, and it seems as if aware of its distinction. Its head is carried proudly and when at ease it rides the water lightly and gracefully. Even in the finest plumage, however, it seems like a freak, with its fluffy tufted head and handsome fore parts, its rather ordinary- looking, plain back and its lack of any appreciable tail to balance its frontal beauties. Like all grebes the bird seems somehow to have been left unfinished ; yet it is admirably adapted to its mode of life.

It may be found in winter almost anywhere along the New England coast, is more common than Holbcell's Grebe, and sometimes in migration is abundant locally not only on the coast but also in the interior. Occasionally severe easterly storms drive large flocks into the ponds of interior Massachusetts. This bird is not generally so wary as the preceding species and frequents narrower streams and smaller ponds. Mr. H. K. Job once found a pair in Connecticut in a little brook from which they seemed unable to rise.1

Ornithologists have repeatedly asserted that grebes cannot rise in the air if once stranded on the ground. Nevertheless, Mr. Charles H. Rogers says that Mr. Walter

» Job, Herbert K. : The Sport of Bird Study, 1908, p. 272.

10 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Granger and himself, while at Long Beach, Long Island, New York, saw a Horned Grebe on the shore, which, on their approach, scuttled away from the water, rose against the wind and circled about, flying several hundred yards before alighting.1 This incident of course cannot be considered proof that any other species ever flew under such condi- tions, but if one can do so another may. The flight of this Grebe is strong and often direct and long-continued. In rising from the water it splashes along on the surface for a long distance before it can gain sufficient impetus to launch itself into the air. In flight it appears much like a loon except for its small size, the greater rapidity of its wing strokes and its conspicuous white wing-patches. On the surface it swims with alternate strokes of its lobed paddles and dives quickly and gracefully with closed wings. When observing this species diving in a tank, I have never seen one open or use its wings under water, but Mr. C. W. Vibert, of South Windsor, Connecticut, who kept one alive for a time, says that it often used the slightly raised wings while swimming under water. Mr. C. A. Clark told me on November 9, 1917, that he with a friend watched two Horned Grebes diving on Walden Pond in the Lynn woods. The watchers took up their positions on a hill above the water where by looking down from this eminence they got a very clear view of the pond below. There were in the pond many small fishes that looked like minnows, which the grebes pursued and some of which they caught. With a glass the manceuvers of the birds could be seen plainly. Mr. Clark says that the wings were held partly open and now and then a quick stroke was given with them. In catching the elusive fish the birds frequently darted their heads to the right or left as their prey dodged and doubled in flight. Several other observers have reported the use of the wings by this grebe for propulsion under water.2

Dr. Langdon illustrates the precocity of the young of this species by the assertion that when fully developed chicks which he removed prematurely from the eggs were placed in the water, they immediately swam and attempted to dive.3

No bird is more at home on the water than this grebe. It often sleeps there with its head on its back and its bill turned to the right and buried under its scapulars. Like the loon it turns on its side or back to preen the feathers of its breast. It is driven from coast waters in winter only by severe storms when a few, stranded on ice or snow, are found occasionally in the interior.

On the Atlantic coast it passes in numbers ; and in October and November and again in March and April its greatest flights occur, usually a mile or two off shore. When mi- grating in the interior it oftens follows the course of a river, swimming with the current very early in the morning or just before dark. At times it flies at a considerable height.

Various authorities have given notes on the food of this species which is known to consist largely of small fish, crustaceans, tadpoles, lizards, leeches, beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, many aquatic insects, a few snails and spiders and some vegetal food. The best

1 Auk, Vol. XXXV, 1918, p. 218.

2 Department Bulletin No. 8, Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, 1922, pp. 10-12.

3 Dawson, William Leon: Birds of Ohio, Vol. II, 1903, p. 631.

GREBES 11

account of its food that I have seen is that given by Mr. W. L. McAtee in Farmers' Bulletin No. 497, U. S. Department of Agriculture. He found an average of 66 per cent, of feathers in the contents of the stomachs examined and suggests that feathers are fed to the young. They are finely ground in the gizzard and are believed to be digested and assimilated. It has been suggested that they are eaten as an aid to digestion, but one would suppose them to be more likely a hindrance.

The food of the Horned Grebe, exclusive of feathers, is thus listed by Mr. McAtee in an analysis of the food contents of 57 stomachs : Beetles, chiefly aquatic, 23.3 per cent. ; other insects nearly 12 per cent. ; fish 27.8 per cent. ; crawfish 20.7 per cent. ; other crus- taceans 13.8 per cent., with a little other animal matter, and a small quantity of vegetal food in two stomachs.1

Economic Status. Evidently these grebes were feeding not only on fish but on the enemies of both fish and crops, and the evidence seems to indicate that they do more good than harm.

Podilymbus podiceps (Linnaeus). Pied-billed Grebe.

Other names: dabchick; water-witch; dipper; didapper; hell-diver; little diver.

Plate 1.

Description. — Bill very stout, its ridge much downcurved. Adults in nuptial plumage (sexes alike) : Crown, back of head and back of neck grayish-black, with slightly lighter feather-edgings ; sides of head and neck brownish-gray ; a conspicuous, long, broad, black throat-patch, the black extend- ing upward at base of lower mandible ; rest of upper plumage dark brown or brownish-black, edges of feathers barely lighter ; primaries and secondaries chocolate-brown, latter often with some whitish or white, mostly on inner webs ; below silvery-ash, closely mottled dusky ; mottling most apparent on sides ; lower belly mostly dusky; bill "light, dull bluish or bluish -white," dusky on ridge and sometimes at tip, almost encircled near middle by a black band which includes nostrils; iris brown and white; eyelids white; "feet greenish- black outside, leaden-gray inside" (Coues). Adults in winter plumage : Similar but more brownish generally ; feathers of back with paler edges ; top of head and nape dusky brown ; throat white without black throat-patch, though some adults have traces in autumn ; neck beneath, breast and sides with more or less light russet-brown mottled dusky, darker behind ; lower belly grayish ; other under plumage silky-white, often almost unspotted, but some- Downy Young Pied-billed times much spotted with dusky; bill dusky-yellowish, no black Grebe.

band. Many immature birds retain on head and throat until into About \ natural size.

October black and white markings suggestive of the nestling

plumage. Downy young: Mainly black with four whitish stripes on back of neck and back; white throat and fore neck striped and spotted with black ; crown black more or less variegated with bright brown, with two pairs of longitudinal white stripes meeting or closely approaching on forehead ; sides of body more or less washed with dusky ; other under plumage grayish-white.

Measurements. — Vary greatly. Length about 12.00 to 15.00 in.; spread about 22.00 to 24.50; folded wing 4.50 to 5.25; bill about .85; tarsus about 1.50.

1 McAtee, W. L., and Beal, F. E. L. : United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 497, 1912, p. 19.

12 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Molts. — Young bird is nearly full-grown before down disappears entirely to be replaced by juvenal plumage ; many young birds retain black and white striped head until late in October ; others change by that time into winter plumage; black throat of adult and black band on bill appear just before breeding season. It seems probable that full adult plumage is ' acquired during the first year" (A. C. Bent) ; adults molt completely in autumn and partially in spring.

Field Makks. — Smaller than a teal ; unmistakable in nuptial plumage because of black throat and pied bill ; in late autumn or winter, when these marks are wanting, may be known from Horned Grebe by thick hen-like bill with curved upper mandible, general brownish tinge of fore neck and breast where other bird is white and absence of shining white cheeks which distinguish Horned Grebe ; also no large conspicuous white wing-patches (but a line of white often shows on tips of secondaries when wing is spread and there is some white under wing).

Voice. — "A loud sonorous cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-cow-uh cow-uh. The notes vary in number and are sometimes followed by wailing cows or uhs ; these love notes of male are sometimes joined by those of female cuk-cuk-cuk followed by a slower ugh, ugh, ugh" (F. M. Chapman); pr-r-r-r-r-tow- tow-tow-tow (E. E. Thompson) ; "an odd bubbling giggle keggy, keggy, keggy, keggy, keggy, keggy, keggy, etc. rendered very rapidly; also a single excited aou" (W. L. Dawson); cuck-cuck-cuck-cuck, kow, kow, kow, kow, suggesting notes of a cuckoo ; a loud wah'-hoo, wah'-hoo, wah'-hoo, wah'-hoo, suggesting the note of a loon ; a low alarm toot, toot, toot, (Ralph Hoffmann) ; alarm note keck, keck; call to the young, cup, cup (A. A. Allen).

Breeding. — In cattail swamps, marshes, ponds and sloughs. Nest : A heap of reeds partially decayed, or flags bent or matted down with perhaps some coarse sedgy grasses ; usually in water from one to three feet deep, in a lagoon, grassy pond or cattail marsh ; among reeds, flags or water brush ; most of the nest-material below the surface; a shallow depression contains the eggs. Eggs: 3 to 10, usually 5 to 7; about 1.70 by .95 in. ; generally "elliptical," ovate, smooth-shelled; dull bluish-white or pale olive-white, usually stained by contact with wet nest-material to a dirty brown. Dates: April 23 to June 28, Massachusetts; May 15 to August 8, New York and New Jersey. Incubation : Period 23 to 24 days; both sexes incubate. Not positively known that more than one brood is raised in a season.

Range. — North and South America generally, in suitable places, but very local. Breeds from British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, Saskatchewan, northeastern Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick south to Chile and Argentina; winters south from New York and New Jersey (occasionally), Vancouver Island, Washington, Arizona, Texas, Mississippi and Potomac Valley southward; recorded casually from Cape Horn and Bermuda.

Distribution in New England. — Summer resident, breeding locally in suitable localities through- out most of New England; common autumnal migrant, less common in spring; casual in winter in mild seasons in southern New England.

Season in Massachusetts. — March 1 to December 12 ; reported also in January and February.

Haunts and Habits. When autumn comes, when the leaves have turned to crimson and gold, when white frost lies on the meadows at sunrise, when noisy jays and busy squirrels are gathering their winter stores, then, on the winding reaches of some sluggish river where the pickerel-weed and arrow-plant grow and where wild rice and cattail flags wave in the breeze, we may find the " Water-witches. " If undisturbed and at ease, they ride almost as lightly and buoyantly upon the water as an Indian canoe or an autumn leaf wafted along the surface. When apprehensive they sink slowly down, swimming with only the head or head and neck above water ; but when really alarmed they go under so quickly that one can hardly see how they vanish. Often after such a disappearance

Photograph by Dr. Frank N. Wilson

Fig. 1. — Pied-billed Grebe on Nest

Fig. 2. — Nest and Eggs of Loon The pale appearance of the eggs is caused by reflection of light from their glossy

surface Page 18

GREBES 13

the eager hunter searches in vain, for the scared bird swims under water until it reaches the water-plants on the margin and there rests with only its bill and perhaps also its eyes above the surface, so deftly concealed that its hiding place is rarely discovered. My friend, the late Charles E. Bailey, who was extremely handy with a gun and as sharp- eyed as a lynx, asserted that one of these birds committed suicide when it saw him aiming, as he felt sure that it never came up. Its apparent descent to the lower regions so quickly as often to escape a charge of shot, and its occasional total and complete disappearance have given it the euphonious appellation of "Hell-diver." There is evidence to the ef- fect that when wounded it sometimes seeks a hiding place at the bottom and dies there either clinging to or entangled in pond weeds or other aquatic vegetation.1

In the old days of flintlock guns the bird dived at the flash in the pan and eluded the shot. Even now in these days of smokeless powder, if low in the water and at a goodly distance, it may escape the gunner, as its body lies mostly under water, and the head and neck offer a small and instantly vanishing mark. The wild-fowler should not shoot it as it is likely to act as an involuntary decoy to flying ducks which see in its presence a sign that the coast is clear and descend without suspicion. Blunderers and ignoramuses with guns there be, however, who pursue this harmless bird which is of little value as food. If successful, they either throw their victim away or keep it only long enough to display as a trophy of marksmanship.

In the breeding season the Pied-billed Grebe is shy and secretive, keeping generally well out of sight, but its presence may be detected by the sonorous notes which it often utters during the mating time. At this season it frequents cattail swamps, large marshes and stagnant, reed-bordered ponds where the nest is built. When the water is deep enough, the nest floats, attached to stems of reeds, flags or bushes. It is large, measur- ing from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, and sometimes the material used would almost fill a bushel basket. Usually it is built high enough to keep the eggs above water, but they are rarely dry. A small colony of the species consisting of several nests and their occu- pants often occupies a small pond or marsh.

When the mother bird leaves her eggs, if time allows, she covers them with some of the "muck and truck" from the nest, although Mr. A. M. Collette, who watched the species in Kansas, found that some of them used fresh grasses to cover the eggs. This grebe is so shy and secretive in the breeding season that it covers and leaves the nest at the first alarm ; but Mr. Collette2 and several other naturalists by using great care have ascertained that the species, like other grebes, if undisturbed, remains on the nest attend- ing to the duties of incubation most of the time, night or day. This seems to dispose of the old notion that this grebe incubates only at night and, covering the eggs in the morn- ing, leaves them all day to be incubated by the heat of the sun and the fermentation of the decaying nest-material. It may, however, so leave them for brief periods. Appar- ently its eggs will withstand long neglect, for Mr. W. L. Dawson records that, having col-

1 Department Bulletin No. 8, Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, 1922, p. 40.

2 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. XIII, 1891-92, pp. 49-50.

14 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

lected some eggs of this species and taken them home, he was somewhat disconcerted two days later when the disimprisoned young ones "cheeped" lustily, "forty hours from the nest." *

Mr. Griffing Bancroft tells how quickly the parent is able to cover the nest and disap- pear when disturbed. On June 9, 1920, he happened by good fortune to surprise one of these birds on her nest. He says that when approached the bird slipped off, but while doing so covered the eggs completely in about two seconds by three quick pecks at the nesting material. As the bird half rose on the nest, the eggs could be plainly seen; when she dived beneath the surface, they were quite covered.2 When the eggs have been thus concealed, the nest appears as a mere heap of trash such as may be found anywhere in a marsh. Mr. George Atkinson tells of a similar habit of this bird in the Canadian Northwest. He says that in 1906 the Dabchick was conspicuous on any pond of any size between Portage LaPrairie and Edmonton. He reports that he did not find the species covering the eggs with rubbish and leaving them during the day, but that he regu- larly disturbed the birds sitting on the nests. When flushed, they were seen to "flap a considerable quantity of the decayed reed foundation over the eggs as though to hide them."3

Mr. C. H. Pease sent me some notes on the nesting of this species in 1913 at Canaan, Connecticut, which have since been published by Mr. A. C. Bent in his Life Histories of North American Diving Birds. The nest was completed and contained one egg when he found it on May 22. An egg was laid daily until May 28 when the eighth and last was deposited. The first two young birds hatched at 9.15 a.m. June 21. On June 22 only one young bird remained in the nest. On July 3 the young appeared to be "half grown."

The young can take to the water immediately after they are hatched and do so if disturbed. In any case they do not remain long in the nest. They swim and dive readily as soon as they strike the water but cannot stay very long beneath the surface. Dr. A. A. Allen says that he watched some that extended the wings at nearly right angles in swimming and diving.4

This species like other grebes often carries the tiny young upon its back. In the face of danger the young are covered by the mother's wings while she swims away buoyantly. If she dives, she usually carries the young under water with her and emerges with them still concealed as it were in her pockets. Often the little ones ride about on the back of the mother sometimes entirely hidden beneath the scapulars or wing-coverts, or with only their little heads peeping out. At such times, if the mother dives, the young often remain floating on the water ; and even when held under the wings, if the parent bird becomes frightened, the chicks sometimes come to the surface, perhaps because the mother uses her wings in swimming under water to hasten her flight. But she has been observed, when closely pursued, to push the young from her back and, evidently at a signal from her, "each baby took a portion of the mother's tail in its bill and all disap-

» The Birds of Ohio, Vol. II, 1903, p. 634. 2 Condor, Vol. XXII, 1920, p. 206.

s Macoun, John and James: Catalogue of Canadian Birds, 1909, p. 8. < Bird-Lore, Vol. XVI, 1914, p. 246.

GREBES 15

peared under the water, coming up some distance away with the babies still clinging to mother's tail." 1 (Loons are said to have a similar habit.) Dr. A. A. Allen tells of seeing a young grebe plunge from the back of one parent and swim to the other.

Ordinarily in shoal-water diving the species seems to make little or no use of its wings, but while under the surface it has been seen to use them. Audubon records that two grebes of this species, which were caught in a net, were placed in a large tub where they swam around the sides like puffins, using their feet and wings "in accordance," and stay- ing a long time under water. He says again that this species "during submersion" employs its wings, as he had an opportunity of observing while some that he was pursuing passed under the boat. Chester A. Reed says of the habit, " In my boyhood I frequently cornered these birds in a creek or small cove, so that in order to escape it was necessary for them to swim under the boat. At these times we could plainly see their mode of progression. They flapped their wings in much the same way as in flying, and this in addition to their feet is what gives them their great speed. On one of these occasions, as the grebe was going under the boat, my companion in his excitement leaped overboard, clothes and all. By some accident he happened to catch the bird by the neck." 2 I have many reports from trustworthy observers who have seen this species using both wings and feet under water and a few have observed the use of the wings alone. Prob- ably the use of both wings and feet explains the great speed which grebes sometimes are able to attain under water, and possibly all grebes use both wings and feet in deep diving, in pursuing their swift and elusive prey or in escaping from some of their larger enemies.

The Pied-billed Grebe though swift and graceful in the water is quite awkward on land. It can walk or run slowly while standing on its feet with the body inclined forward at an angle, but if much hurried it throws itself forward on its belly, and scrambles along with both wings and feet as if it were swimming. It lives largely and sleeps often on the water, but Audubon asserts that he has seen the species resting at evening on beds of reeds such as are found in some of its favorite haunts. If severely or mortally wounded and not pursued, it seeks the shore, if possible, where it rests on its breast. Probably all waterfowl instinctively turn to the shore in such a case. While it is true that the plu- mage of grebes and other water birds is impervious to water when they are in good health and able to keep the feathers well dressed, it seems to lose its water-proof character when the bird is ill or wounded. I once saw such a bird kept in a tank. The feathers became water-soaked and draggled, and the bird though taken from the tank soon died.

The southward migration of the species begins during September in New England. The earliest arrival reported at Block Island, Rhode Island, was September 16. By November 15, most of the "Pied-bills" have left New England for the South; but dur- ing the exceedingly mild winter of 1920-21 the species was reported a few times in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and also on Long Island. As the Pied- billed Grebe is mainly a fresh-water bird and frequents chiefly still or sluggish waters, it commonly moves southward when such waters freeze and remains in the South until

1 Peck, Grace H. : Bird-Lore, Vol. XXI, 1919, p. 110. 2 American Ornithology, Vol. I, 1901, p. 149.

16 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

March when the ice breaks up on the lakes and rivers of southern New England. It then returns, and in April its cuckoo-like notes may be heard in the ponds and marshes where it breeds. It is supposed to migrate at night, and it would seem that its small wings could not make very long flights, but it has been seen at daybreak coming to shore over wide bays and estuaries.

The food of this grebe consists of small fish and other small forms of animal life, as frogs, tadpoles, snails, crustaceans, leeches and aquatic insects, together with vegetal matter such as seeds and other parts of water-plants. Audubon says that he found in the gizzard a quantity of hair and a feather-like substance which he found was the down of certain plants such as thistles with the seeds remaining undigested and attached. Like all grebes they eat feathers, balls of which are usually found in their stomachs, but the nutritive value of these to the grebe is unknown.

Economic Status. See page 4.

Suborder CEPPHI. Loons and Auks.

Number of species in North America 26 ; in Massachusetts 8.

Family GAVUD^J. Loons. Number of species in North America 5 ; in Massachusetts 2.

Loons are larger than grebes. They have stout, strong, straight, narrow, tapering, sharp-pointed and sharp-edged bills with which they strike and hold their finny prey. Unlike grebes the head is fully feathered to the beak with no crests or ruffs. The plu- mage is often more or less velvety about the head and neck, but hard and glossy elsewhere. The front toes are connected by a web extending to their tips, and the tail though very short is not downy like that of a grebe, but is equipped with stiff quills. Loons are especially noted for their diving powers, the long distances that they travel under water and their great speed beneath the surface where like grebes they use either feet or wings, or both, for propulsion. Like grebes and anhingas they can alter their specific gravity quickly and swim with the body wholly or partly under water, with only head and neck exposed. In plumage the sexes are alike. Immature birds and winter adults are similar to each other, Foot of Loon " but are usua% much duller in color than summer adults. The voice is loud and resonant. Economic Status. No thorough all-the-year-round study of the food of loons has been made. Therefore their economic status remains undetermined. They feed mainly on aquatic animal and vegetal life and probably play their part as regulators of subsur- face life in lakes where they breed.

"The possibility that the Loon may render a service to conservers of game fishes, by holding in check in some degree the destroyers of fish-eggs, such as suckers and horned-

PLATE 2

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LOONS 17

pouts, or in destroying the fishes affected with contagious gill-fungus and other diseases, has never been given consideration. There is, however, an element of probability in this, for, by the law of survival of the fittest, the physically inferior individuals, whether in- herently weaker or the victims of disease, are the ones that habitually fall prey to their enemies. Unquestionably it is the weaker specimens of the species eaten that constitute the greater part of the Loon's diet. On the other hand some, as the suckers, are very destructive to the finest game-species, eating large quantities of their eggs, while them- selves of little value as food or game. Weed and Dearborn say that 'the fish they con- sume are generally worthless.' As a matter of fact very little has been made known of the economic status of the Loon, but this little is considerably in its favor. Aquatic insects large enough to attract the attention of the Loon are predaceous, and in some instances have proved to be factors of sufficient importance to demand active measures for their suppression in fish ponds " (Arthur H. Norton).

Gavia immer (Brunnich). Loon.

Other names: great northern diver; big loon. Plate 2.

Description. — Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Head and neck rich, glossy, velvety green- ish-black with some lustrous purplish reflections ; a transverse patch of sharply-defined white streaks on throat ; a larger similar patch lower down on either side of neck, sometimes meeting behind ; sides of breast striped black and white; upper plumage, sides and flanks black, thickly marked, except on flight-feathers, upper tail-coverts and tail with sharply-defined spots of pure white ; each contour- feather with two spots, those on back and scapulars square or rectangular, others oval ; below, including axillars and wing linings, white ; dusky band around lower belly ; bill shining black ; iris red ; legs black or blackish on outer side, light bluish-gray inside ; feet black or blackish below, light bluish-gray above. * Adults in winter plumage: Generally dark brown or blackish above, with no light feather-edgings; feathers of back and scapulars square-tipped with a faint suggestion of white spots of nuptial plumage ; chin, throat and other under parts mainly white ; bill and feet much lighter than in summer, lower mandible and part of upper "ivory colored" (M. Bedford) ; iris reddish-brown ; apparently some fully adult birds, perhaps very old, do not assume the winter plumage. Young in first winter plumage : Sim- ilar, but birds of first year have smaller bill than adult ; bill light horn color in autumn, dark on ridge, darker in spring, but never black ; iris brown ; feet much like those of winter adult ; top of head and back of neck sooty; feathers of throat and breast sometimes pure white but often finely mottled dusky; feathers of back rounded instead of square-tipped ; above blackish-brown with broad light gray feather- edgings, particularly those of fore-back. Downy young : Brownish-black, fading as bird grows older ; central part of belly white, tinged on sides with grayish.

Measurements. — Length 28.00 to 36.00 in. ; spread about 52.00 to 58.25 ; folded wing 12.40 to 16.00; tail 2.60 to 4.00 ; bill 2.70 to 3.90 ; tarsus 3.00 to 3.90.

Molts. — Juvenal plumage is partly molted in winter ; first winter plumage is worn through summer and for nearly a year without much modification, light edgings above bleaching to white or wearing away and throat becoming whiter toward spring ; autumnal (postnuptial) molt is complete and followed early in the fall by second winter plumage, which is similar to first winter plumage except that dark crown is

* Some fully adult loons in high breeding plumage may have tarsi and feet entirely black, as some authorities assert, but among many loons examined I have found only one so colored.

18

BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

more clearly defined, throat pure white, and feathers of back, which still have broad light edgings, more nearly square-tipped : this plumage is worn for only a short time by some individuals which begin to show signs of molt into second nuptial plumage in November or December by growth of a few jet-black feathers with white spots on back, wings, rump and flanks ; usually this molt is not much in evidence until Febru- ary; from then on prenuptial molt advances to head and neck and by April or May second nuptial plumage is complete ; this is similar to adult nuptial plumage but duller, more dingy, and often with more or less white in chin and throat ; some specimens in this plumage have sexual organs somewhat enlarged, indicating that they probably breed when about 2 years old ; bill now black and never again as light as in young ; at next postnuptial molt bird becomes fully adult, when a little over 2 years old ; adult winter plumage assumed during this third fall is worn for a short time only ; third-year post- nuptial molt probably is complete and begins sometimes by the last of August, but some- times not until October ; the prenuptial molt (also complete) may begin in November or later and may not be completed until spring. Note. — As an example of complete spring molt of the Loon, the following is of interest : On March 12, 1921, 1 picked up at Nantucket a very large and heavy dead Loon apparently in its second winter plumage. There were no signs of breeding plumage except some dark feathers in the upper wing-coverts which were spotted with white. The flight-feathers had been molted recently. The primaries were so short that the white under wing-coverts projected beyond their tips; secondaries also were very short. Evidently this bird if alive would have been unable to fly.

Field Marks. — Size of small goose ; black and white adult unmistakable in sum- mer; in winter resembles Red-throated Loon but larger and feathers of back margined with grayish where the "Red-throat" is spotted with light gray or whitish; bill stouter, heavier and usually straighter than that of Red-throat's which is more slender and often seems a little upturned.

Voice. — Loud resonant calls; at night-fall or before storm A-ooo'-oo or as often written O'-O-ooh; common laughing call hod, hob, hob, hob, hob, uttered in peculiar vibrating tremolo (E. H. Eaton) ; o-ha-ha-ha-ho! (Robert J. Sim) ; four calls (1) a short cooing note, (2) a long drawn-out note known to guides as the night call, (3) the laughing call, (4) the storm call, a peculiar and weird performance (W. L. Underwood) ; the "silly song," Oh-a-le' cleo'-pee'-a-rit, cleo'-pee'-a-rit, cleo'-per'-wer-wer ! a soft mellow pleasing 0 Idir in rather a disconsolate tone (Robert J. Sim).

Breeding. — Usually about shores of inland lakes ; sometimes near sea. Nest : In shallow water or on shore of some lake or pond or on island in pond near or just above high water mark ; a mere hollow in sand with a few blades of grass and sticks surrounding it ; a bed of moss and weeds built on rocky ground ; a mass of reeds and other vegetation on edge of marsh ; a depression in top of old muskrat house or grassy tussock ; sometimes lined with material from bog and bits of grass or turf ; sometimes shadowed by bushes or undergrowth, often open and unconcealed; practically a trough-like depression in which sitting bird faces the water. Eggs: 2; about 3.50 by 2.25 in.; elongated, pointed; varying from olive- green to dark olive-brown, spotted with dark brown and blackish and occasionally with lighter spots of drab. Dates: June 2 to August 10, Maine and New Hampshire. Incubation: Period close to 29 days (O. W. Knight) ; 29 days (Burns). One brood yearly.

Downy Young of Loon About i natural size.

LOONS 19

Range. — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere, chiefly North America. Breeds in America from Arctic coasts and islands south to western Washington, northeastern California, northern Iowa, northeastern Indiana, northern Ohio (formerly), northeastern Illinois, Pennsylvania (casually), north- ern New York, Connecticut (casually) and Massachusetts (rarely) ; recorded in summer (not breeding) in southern California, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, New York and Massa- chusetts ; also from Outer Hebrides, Shetlands and coast of Norway ; winters mainly in United States and in western Europe ; in United States from Great Lakes and Maine (Nova Scotia casually) to Florida and Gulf coast and from British Columbia to Lower California ; in Europe from British Isles south to Azores, Madeira, Mediterranean and Black Sea.

Distribution in New England. — Summer resident in northern New England ; resident on Maine and New Hampshire coast; rare in summer in southern parts of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont and very rare at that season in Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut ; not uncommon fall and spring migrant generally ; abundant migrant along New England coast where more or less com- mon all winter ; less common transient in interior.

Season in Massachusetts. — September 1 to June 11; casual in summer; breeds very rarely and locally. Young loons with their parents are reported now and then in summer on our coast. Recent reports are of a pair of half-grown flappers with parents seen by Winthrop Packard, July 27, 1921, in Buzzards Bay off the Falmouth shore ; and two young with parents reported by Harry V. Long, June 21, 1922, at Cohasset.

Haunts and Habits. The Loon is a wonderful, powerful, living mechanism fashioned for riding the stormy seas. See him as he mounts high above the waves, neck and legs fully extended "fore and aft," and bill a trifle raised which gives to his whole form a slight upward bend, his wings beating powerfully and moving as steadily as the walking-beam of a side-wheel steamship. He is driving straight ahead into the teeth of the gale and mak- ing greater headway than the laboring steamer that steers a parallel course. Now he slants downward, and striking just beyond the top of a towering wave shoots down its inclined surface and rises again on the coming crest. Here, midway of the wide bay where the seas are running high and wildly tossing their white tops, with a wintry gale whipping the spray from them in smoky gusts, the Loon rests at ease, head to the wind and sea like a ship at anchor. The tossing and the tumult disturb him not, as he rides, light as a birch canoe, turning up his white breast now and then on one side as he reaches unconcernedly backward to preen his feathers. His neck narrows at the water-line into a beautifully modeled cutwater. His broad paddles push his white breast to the tops of the great waves, where it parts the foam as he surmounts the crests and glides easily down into the gulfs beyond. The freezing spray that loads the fishing fleet with tons of ice seems never to cling to his tough and glossy plumage ; or if it does, he washes it off among the fleeing fishes away down in the warmer currents near the bottom of the bay. Often toward nightfall I have heard his wild storm-call far out to windward against the black pall of an approaching tempest like the howl of a lone wolf coming down the wind ; and have seen his white breast rise on a wave against the black sky to vanish again like the arm of a swimmer lost in the stormy sea. Sailors, hearing the call, say that the loons are trying to blow up an "easterly." At times his cries seem wailing and sad as if he were bemoaning his exile from his forest lake. Such is the Loon in his winter home

20 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

off our coast ; for there he lives and braves the inclemency of the season. Of all the wild creatures that persist in New England, the Loon seems best to typify the stark wildness of primeval nature.

No doubt the bird once bred in most of the ponds in the northern tier of states. Now its breeding places in the United States are comparatively few. Fifty years ago it nested about many ponds in Massachusetts. Now I know of none where a breeding pair may be surely found. Rarely we hear of young Loons raised in our state, but in the nesting season most of our inland waters know the birds no more. They were "shot out" at a great expenditure of powder and lead or driven out by continual persecution. They died hard ; but they are gone, perhaps never to return.

In the breeding season Loons love the solitude of northern lakes where shores are shaded by fir and spruce and where the still pure water seldom mirrors a human face. Islands in quiet lakes are the favorite breeding-grounds of this species, and there in June or July the young are hatched. These take to the water soon after they leave the eggs. They swim readily, using their feet alternately or both together, and soon learn to dive well and to remain for some time under water.

During his courtship the male frequently rushes about on the water, actually running almost upright upon the surface, with open bill and closed wings. He sometimes assumes a similar position and makes the same rushes when the young are threatened by his great- est enemy, man.'

There seems to be a belief among some ornithologists that Loons rarely if ever use their wings in swimming under water. They have been seen to swim in tanks and in shallow weedy waters with their wings closed, but one who has witnessed the speed with which Loons travel long distances beneath the surface in deep and unobstructed waters will find it hard to believe that such rapid progress can be made by the use of the feet alone. A submerged Loon which I followed in a boat propelled by two rowers in the shallows of the Banana River, Florida, and which apparently could not use its wings to get up speed because of the shallowness of the water and the weedy growth on the bottom, was so slow that the boat kept pace with it, and its progress was easily watched. A Loon in deep water where it could use both wings and feet has been known to outspeed an or- dinary motor-boat. Loons are hardy deep divers and are said to have been taken in fish-nets 60 feet below the surface. Professor Collett, as quoted by Mr. Bent, says that a Yellow-billed Loon was taken on a hook laid at a depth of almost 15 fathoms (90 feet). Ordinarily it is impossible to observe a Loon in deep water,' but occasionally under favor- able conditions for observation they have been seen to use the wings. Dr. Coues had an excellent opportunity to watch some Pacific Loons (Gavia pacifica) at the Bay of San Pedro on the coast of southern California in 1865 where, as they had been little hunted, he had no difficulty in securing all the specimens that he desired. He says that they were tamer than any other waterfowl that he had ever seen. They came up to the wharves and

1 For detailed account of nesting and some other habits of Loon see article by Robert J. Sim, Bird-Lore, Vol. XXV, 1923, pp. 167-175.

LOONS 21

played about as unconcernedly as domestic ducks. They swam constantly all about vessels in the harbor and as the water was exceedingly clear their under-water activities could be plainly seen. Coues says "I could follow their course under water; see them shoot with marvelous swiftness through the limpid element, as urged by powerful strokes of the webbed feet and beats of the half -opened wings, they flew rather than swam." He saw them catch fish and even noted the bubbles of air clinging like sparkling jewels to their plumage.1 Dr. Coues gives the impression that these Loons habitually used both wings and feet in their swift under-water flight. These birds evidently were not frightened or hurried in the least by any human agency, as Dr. Coues says elsewhere that from the stern of a steamer anchored in the quiet and transparent water of the harbor of San Pedro, southern California, he once watched the movements of some Loons which were playing about the vessel without alarm of any kind. As they swam and dived he traced them under water. They appeared to swim in every direction, using wings and feet, and actually flew through the water, as in aerial flight. They seemed to change course by their feet, and propel by means of the wings.2

Dr. T. S. Palmer, of the United States Biological Survey, tells me that his observa- tions on this species confirm those of Dr. Coues regarding use of wings, but in his case the birds were frightened as they were pursued by people in boats. Mr. C. Wm. Beebe, who has had exceptional opportunities to observe Loons in tanks, wrote to Dr. C. W. Townsend that Grebes and Loons use their wings in times of emergency to turn quickly or "to get up a burst of speed." If they use them for this purpose in the confined space of a tank, how much more must they use them when speed and quick turning are neces- sary in diving in very deep water or while pursuing their prey or escaping from their enemies. Mr. William Brewster told Dr. Townsend that Loons in diving under boats to avoid being hemmed in, or in hurrying from their nests, use their wings as well as their feet, and Mr. F. H. Allen says that young Loons use both wings and feet in diving.3 Mr. A. C. Bent writes : "When wishing to indulge in an unusual burst of speed it uses both feet and wings with marvelous effect, but ordinarily I believe that the wings are not used."

I have reports from twenty-four naturalists who have seen Loons use their wings alone or both wings and feet under water at varying speeds and for different purposes.

Holbcell asserted that the Loon had been observed to remain under water for eight minutes but this hardly seems probable.

Although the Loon is graceful and swift on or in the water, it is at a disadvantage on land. It has been asserted that it cannot under any circumstances rise in the air from the land nor from the water unless aided by a head wind, and that it must have more room than can be furnished by a small pool, and even then it seems obliged to flutter and run spatteringly along the surface for some distance to get impetus enough to rise in the air. When the young are well grown, the family, often joined by some neighboring adults,

1 Coues, Elliott : Birds of the Northwest, 1874, p. 723. 2 Coues, Elliott : Forest and Stream, Vol. I, 1873, p. 149.

a Townsend, C. W. : Auk, Vol. XXVI, 1909, p. 235.

22 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

frolic for a brief time on the water and then fall into line side by side, and, lifting their wings simultaneously, run an apparent foot race over the surface with "incredible speed" for a quarter of a mile, and turning race back to the starting-point. They repeat this over and over again. During these races the wings are held out and about half opened. At the end of the performance the male, female and neighbors leave for other fishing grounds and the young scatter to find food. This play evidently tends to train the mus- cles of the young birds and to fit them for flight. Such races are rather rarely seen along our coast.

The ordinary, steady, level flight of the Loon is familiar to all who know the bird, but under favorable conditions it can soar or circle with set wings. Mr. Robert J. Sim, who has spent much time watching Loons on their breeding-grounds, says that in flight their feet are carried well back of the tail and well spread, with the outer toe of each foot highest. As seen from behind, the position of the feet may be shown thus. *^^» ^*

Often a Loon will sleep on the water by rolling on its side, tucking its bill under its scapulars, stowing one foot under the feathers of the flank and automatically paddling with the other. On our coasts Loons rarely are seen on land unless wounded, but Audu- bon satisfied himself that on their breeding-grounds they spend the night on shore. I once saw at nightfall a pair resting on the beach of an isolated island in British Columbia. Mr. Bent says that "when it is safe to do so they often come ashore to sleep" and that he has several times surprised a single bird well up on a beach " where it had been spending the night or had gone ashore to dry and sand its plumage." The attempts of such a bird to regain the water were more rapid than graceful, as it often fell on its breast as it scrambled down the beach, humping its back, darting its head and neck about and strain- ing every muscle to make speed, with rather surprising success. It is quite generally asserted that Loons cannot walk well on land. In fact the name Loon is understood to be derived from the old English word "lumme," a lummox, an awkward person. Though ungraceful on land by reason of its hidebound legs and the peculiar position of its feet, the Loon can make remarkable speed for short distances when racing toward water. It uses its wings in place of fore legs and so flaps and scrambles along. I have seen Loons on land go off into the water "like a flash" and Dr. Nelson mentions a case in which he was unable to overtake an unwounded Black-throated Loon on land.1

Mr. Aaron C. Bagg, who pursued a Loon on the beach, says that its locomotion was accomplished partly by the feet and partly by the wings, which were not flapped as in flight but used like a pair of crutches. Sometimes the bill also was used "like a pick" to keep the balance.

When the ice begins to break up in the spring, the migration of the Loons begins. They follow close to melting ice, and late in April begin to appear in the Maine lakes. All through this month small flights of Loons pass from time to time up the New England coast ; but the great migration to the Arctic regions comes from about the 15th to the 30th of May and sometimes a few migrants are moving until after June 1st. Usually they

1 Nelson, E. W. : Report upon the Natural History Collections Made in Alaska between the Years 1877 and 1881, 1887, p. 37.

LOONS 23

fly with the bill closed, but sometimes on warm days a bird may be seen with its bill wide open as if for air. The great days of the loon-flight are usually warm with southwesterly winds. Then the birds fly low and fast. Morning and night they come. Passing Long Island they go to the southward of Narragansett Bay and come up Buzzards Bay, cross- ing Cape Cod near the Canal and so on into Cape Cod Bay where they lay a course for the Bay of Fundy. Another flight keeps well out to sea and goes north outside Cape Cod, passing eastward of Truro and Provincetown, bound apparently for Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Baffin Bay. Their low flight on a southwest wind is very noticeable. When the wind comes from another quarter, they are likely to fly very high and so attract less notice.

A strong, swift, submarine diver, the Loon glides or flies at will far down the depths where it pursues its prey. Often little fish are swallowed under water. Mr. J. A. Mackenzie watched a Loon take 6 minnows out of a school before coming to the sur- face.1 The Loon brings the larger and stronger fish to the surface and mauls them there. If such a fish escapes, the bird dives in pursuit and soon overtakes its prey.

Along the shores of the Atlantic the Loon is believed to feed chiefly on fish. It feeds to some extent on crabs and mollusks, and also on frogs, leeches, aquatic insects and water plants. Dr. P. L. Hatch says that Loons can do without fish and frogs when supplied with aquatic vegetation, and both Audubon and Dr. B. H. Warren note that they found such food in Loons' stomachs. Mr. E. 0. Grant writes that he dissected a Loon in Maine that had only "grass or weeds" in its stomach.

It is difficult to see how a Loon manages to swallow a flounder "as wide as a man's hand," but they catch and eat such fish. Mr. George H. Mackay on April 18, 1890, on West Island, Sakonnet Point, Rhode Island, saw a Loon preparing to swallow a flounder. The fish, he says, was about 5 inches in diameter. The Loon dropped it on the water, pecked it and bit it. When the fish escaped the bird dived after it and thus kept at it for fully five minutes ; then stretching up his head with the bill pointing toward the sky, swallowed it. Mr. Mackay says he could hardly have believed this possible had he not seen it.

Mr. Sydney Chase, of Nantucket, writes that on May 3, 1922, he watched a Loon, perhaps 100 yards off shore. The bird went down and stayed under as a rule about 40 seconds, but once was under water about a minute and came up with a flounder that Mr. Chase asserts must have been at least four inches across, and possibly six. The bird took the fish by the head with his bill and kept biting it, evidently trying to crush and kill it, and he finally succeeded by shutting his bill together on its head. Then he easily swallowed the fish head foremost, took a little water in his mouth, rinsed it, shook his head and dived again.

I have watched Loons to see how they could so reduce flounders as to swallow them. On March 11, 1922, in Nantucket Harbor, I saw a Loon swallow two within half an hour. One of them appeared to be rather more than four inches in diameter. Both fish seemed

1 Recreation, Vol. VIII, 1898, p. 283.

24 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

to be dead when brought to the surface as they did not struggle. It would be interesting to know how the bird killed them under water. The Loon worked a long time with the flounder in its bill, apparently crushing it, possibly to contract it ; finally the fish was swallowed with apparent ease. As it went down the Loon's gullet, it seemed to be re- duced in width at least one-third. Whether this was done by crushing the fish with the bill and rolling it against the breast or was accomplished in the process of swallowing, I could not determine. Fishermen say that the Loon "rolls the fish up."

Crabs are bitten and broken in preparation for eating and their legs are often dis- carded. At low tide the Loon sometimes will feed on tide flats in shallow water like a goose by merely dipping its head and neck under water.

I find no very convincing evidence that Loons kill and eat other birds. Roderick Macfarlane says that an Eskimo of his party saw a Pacific Eider struck and killed on the wing by a Yellow-billed Loon.1 Dr. Townsend in his excellent history of the birds of Essex County tells of a Loon that chased a flock of young mergansers, the Loon swim- ming under water while the mergansers flapped along on the surface until they gained the shore while the "disappointed Loon" swam about outside.2

The late George 0. Welch claimed to have the best of evidence that Loons killed and ate birds up to the size of a duck, but I have not seen any published notes from him on the subject.

A writer in Forest and Stream contributes the following: "The loons, or some of them, seem to be very hostile to ducks. I have witnessed some encounters between them. In one case, when a duck and her family were sailing quietly along, I saw them make a mad rush, the old one calling loudly, when suddenly out of the water rose a large loon and attacked them with great fury, churning the water into foam with his wings in the pursuit. He seemed to me to secure one of the young ducks, with which he disap- peared under the water. At another time I witnessed a contest between a loon and an old duck — the latter defending her young apparently. In each of these cases the loon was concealed under the water, and rose suddenly from it to the attack." 3 H. J. LaDue records the attack of a Loon on a Coot.4 Evermann and Clark assert that a "good observer" at Lake Maxinkuckee states that he saw a Loon chase, capture and devour a " helldiver." 5

Economic Status. See page 16.

Note. Dr. Louis B. Bishop describes a supposed new race of the loon, to which he gives the name of Lesser Black-billed Loon, Gavia immer elasson. If this form is recognized by ornithologists, the Loon will necessarily become Gavia immer immer. A male of the proposed race taken at Concord, Massa- chusetts (without date) was found in the collection of William Brewster. The only subspecific differ-

1 Mair, Charles : Through the Mackenzie Basin, 1908, p. 295.

i Townsend, C. W. : Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, No. Ill, The Birds of Essex County, Massachusetts 1905, p. 80.

a Forest and Stream, Vol. LIU, 1899, pp. 84, 85.

« Bird-Lore, Vol. XXI, 1919, p. 358.

'Evermann, Barton Warren, and Clark, Howard Walton: Lake Maxinkuckee. A Physical and Biological Survey, Stat» of Indiana. Department of Conservation, Publication No. 7, Vol. I, 1920, p. 492.

LOONS

25

ence discovered by Dr. Bishop is that of size, the new race being the smaller. Dr. Bishop's careful measurements, together with the range of this race as far as known, are given in The Auk, Vol. 38, 1921, pages 364 to 370. Some of the comparative measurements given by him in millimeters and here reduced to inches follow :

G.

	Folded Wing	Tail	Exposed CULMEN	Depth of Bill at Base	Tarsus	Outer Toe with Nail
Largest male .... Smallest female . . .	16.00 13.75	4.00 3.23	3.71 2.95	1.15 .88	3.82 3.22	5.75 4.45

G. elasson

Largest male .... Smallest female . . .	14.64 13.12	3.40 2.78	3.35 2.69	.99 .83	3.59 3.05	4.77 4.20
Length and Spread
		Length	Spread
	Immer	Elasson	Immer	Elasson
	34.12 32.00	30.98	58.25		54.00
	28.18		54.37	50.81

Note.

Gavia arctica (Linnaeus). Black-throated Loon.

Mr. A. C. Bent in his Life History of North American Diving Birds (Bulletin No. 107, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum), says that he has no reason for including the life history of the European Black-throated Loon in that work.

This bird has been reported or recorded several times in New England and also in other parts of eastern North America, but Mr. F. Seymour Hersey (Auk, Vol. XXXIV, 1917, p. 283) shows that all available specimens now extant must be referred either to the Pacific Loon or to the common Loon — except three casual Alaskan specimens of arctica, supposed to be of an Asiatic form. Apparently there is no authentic specimen of Gavia arctica to be found in North America. Therefore the Pacific Loon, which is a loon with a black throat, but not the Black-throated Loon, appears to be the only "black- throated loon" that has any status as a bird of New England.

Apparently those authors (of which unfortunately I am one) and collectors who have assigned Gavia arctica to a place among the birds of New England have been either mistaken in the identity of the specimens or have unquestioningly followed the lead of others. Such a mistake is not to be won- dered at, as the two forms closely resemble each other and probably intergrade. It is possible that arctica may yet be found here, but thus far there is no authentic record.

26 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Gavia pacifica (Lawrence). Pacific Loon.

Description. — Smaller than Loon ; like Black-throated Loon but smaller ; paler gray on hind- head and neck ; also white streaks on sides of neck less prominent (because of gray background instead of black as in Black-throated Loon) ; bill shorter, and smaller. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Chin, throat and front of neck black or purplish-black, shading gradually through bronzy-greenish reflections on sides of head into "very pale smoky grayish" (sometimes nearly white) on top of head and back of head and neck, much darker on forehead, growing lighter behind, separated on sides of neck from black on fore neck by a series of white streaks on a dark gray background; a crescentic bar of short white streaks across throat ; sides of lower neck and upper breast streaked narrowly black and white (in some individuals shorter streaks which nearly meet in front) ; upper surface of body glossy greenish- black or bluish-black, each feather of scapulars and of sides of upper back with two white angular spots near tip — one on each web (in some cases coalesced) ; these spots arranged in cross rows, largest on scapulars ; wing-coverts black and (except primary coverts and feathers on edge of wing) dotted with small ovate white spots; flight-feathers black, their inner webs and under side of tail glossy grayish- brown ; tail brownish-black above ; sides and flanks glossy black ; a blackish line across vent ; rest of under plumage white except a part of under tail-coverts which are blackish-brown tipped white and ax- illars which are streaked centrally blackish. Adults in winter plumage: Whole top of head and back of neck to near base, dark brown tinged grayish; rest of upper plumage slightly glossy blackish-brown sometimes margined darker (in certain individuals some scapulars with pair each of small, sub- terminal, whitish spots) ; wing-coverts brown ; flight-feathers with glossy brownish-black outer webs and tips, dark brown shafts, pale brown inner webs ; tail-feathers black, white-tipped ; below white ; under tail- coverts as in summer ; white on sides of head extending from base of lower mandible back under eye to sides of nape, slightly mottled where white and grayish-brown meet ; usually a narrow line of brown across upper throat; feathers on sides of breast next to dark brown of upper plumage have brown shaft-streaks; flanks dark brown; feathers next to under plumage have outer webs mostly white; a narrow (usually incomplete) dark brown line across vent ; axillars white, sometimes with dark brown shafts and terminal shaft-streaks; under wing-coverts white, posterior ones with pale brown central streaks. Young in first winter and succeeding summer plumage: A mixture of feathers of juvenal plumage and adult winter plumage; feathers of back show both blackish (adult) and ashy-edged (juvenal) feathers ; neck-stripes may begin to show. Young in juvenal plumage : Top of head and back of neck like adult winter but more brown, less gray ; rest of upper plumage dark brown, feathers with broad, ashy-gray margins, giving bird a scaled appearance, most conspicuous on upper back and scapulars, less so on hinder plumage ; sides of neck next white of throat more finely mottled brown than in adults, mottling sometimes extending across neck and on throat ; prominent brown line across vent ; posterior under tail-coverts dark brown with narrow white tips ; wing-feathers and primary coverts as adult but

LOONS 27

all wing-coverts tipped grayish-brown or ashy ; gray tips of upper plumage and white tips of tail wear off considerably by January; "iris brown; bill bluish, culmen dusky; feet blackish on outer and livid- blue on inner surface" (Allan Brooks). Downy young: Seal-brown on back, lightening on sides, head and neck; breast and belly paler, becoming light drab and gradually paling when second down is assumed.

Measurements. — Length about 24.00 in.; spread 40.00 or less; folded wing 11.00 to 12.25; tail 2.05 to 2.40 ; length of bill 1.90 to 2.35 ; height of bill at nostrils .50 or less ; tarsus about 2.50.

Molts. — From early winter into summer the young seem to be molting more or less, gradually assuming winter plumage of adult but apparently not getting full adult winter plumage until second winter, after a complete autumnal molt (some may require another year) ; adults have a complete prenuptial and a complete postnuptial molt.

Field Marks. — In breeding plumage light gray or whitish top of head and hind neck distinguish this species from Loon, and black throat from Red-throated Loon ; indistinguishable in winter from any Loon, in field, but much smaller than Gavia immer.

Voice. — "A peculiar harsh cry kok, kok, kok" (J. Murdoch) ; a loud, weird, prolonged shrill scream (R. Macfarlane).

Breeding. — About deep water lakes ; also swamps and sloughs in Arctic tundra ; near water on Barren Grounds or in wooded regions of interior. Nest : Sometimes merely bare ground ; sometimes a small heap of vegetation close to water. Eggs : 1 or 2 ; in size between those of common Loon and those of Red-throated Loon ; "usually elliptical ovate" ; greenish-olive to dark umber with blackish blotches or spots. Dates: June 8 to July 23, Alaska and Northwest Territory. Incubation: Period probably about 28 days ; probably by both sexes.

Range. — North America and Pacific coast of Asia. Breeds from Bering Sea, northwestern Alaska, Banks Island and Melville Peninsula south to central British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, north- eastern Manitoba and southeastern Hudson Bay (mouth of James Bay) ; also in northeastern Siberia and probably from Aleutian and Near islands along Pacific coast of Asia to Japan ; winters mainly along Pacific coast south to southern Lower California ; casual in Guadaloupe Island, Arizona, New Mexico, Iowa, New York and New Hampshire.

Distribution in New England. — One record. New Hampshire : Specimen (unsexed, full spring plumage) shot in May, 1910, at Hampton Beach by S. A. Shaw and now in mounted collection of Boston Society of Natural History.

Haunts and Habits. Probably the Pacific Loon is the only Black-throated Loon that has been taken in New England. We have but one authentic record of its occur- rence which can be substantiated by a specimen. It is quite possible, however, that other individuals of this race may appear here, as the bird is known to breed, casually at least, near James Bay. In winter plumage it is only by a careful examination of the specimen in hand that this species (though smaller) can be distinguished from the Loon. It frequents the same waters as the Loon. Nothing is recorded of its habits in New England. In general they seem to be similar to those of the common Loon.

The bird subsists largely on fish and takes some frogs. It breeds mostly about fresh water lakes and goes to salt water largely in winter.

Note. European systematists now separate the Black-throated Loon into four forms : one {Colym- bus arcticus arcticus) in Europe and eastern Asia ; another (C. a. suschkini) in Western Siberia ; the third (C. a. virdigularis) in Eastern Siberia; and the fourth (C. a. pacificus), the Pacific Loon, which is the form most likely to occur in New England.

28 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan). Red-throated Loon.

Other names: red-throated diver; cape drake; cape race; cape racer; scapegrace;

LITTLE LOON; SPRAT LOON ; PEGGING AWL LOON; PEPPER-SHINNED LOON J TUTCHMUNK.

Plate 2.

Description. — Bill varies much in size and shape but usually slender, concave at nostrils and gently convex at tip. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Crown, nape, back of neck and sides of lower neck glossy greenish-black, three latter streaked narrowly white ; white streaks extend so as to nearly meet in front of breast ; fore neck with long triangular patch of bright chestnut ; rest of head and neck clear, bluish-gray ; prevailing color elsewhere above, also sides under wings, brownish-black ; all with greenish gloss and thickly marked with small oval white spots ; primaries blackish, paler on inner webs ; below (including lining of wings) white ; axillars with narrow dusky shaft-streaks ; tail narrowly tipped white ; bill blackish, a little lighter at tip ; iris red ; feet colored like those of the common Loon. Adults and immature in winter plumage : Similar to common Loon, but crown and back of neck bluish-gray > feathers of former bordered whitish ; upper plumage marked with small oval spots of white, and throat pure white. Young in first winter plumage : Birds of the first year similar to winter adults but have V-shaped white spots on back; throat more or less grayish or mottled; bill bluish-white, darker on ridge ; iris brown. Downy Young : Dark brown above, shading into drab below.

Measurements. — Length 24 to 27 in.; spread about 44.00; folded wing 10.00 to 11.50; tail 1.73 to 2.06; bill 2.00 to 2.25 ; tarsus about 2.75.

Note. This bird varies much in size, shape and markings. Some summer adults have very few spots on back; some first year birds have many diamond-shaped or V-shaped markings and are more spotted than adults.

Molts. — In juvenal plumage head and neck are mottled with "mouse gray" and dirty white; upper parts dusky, mottled on back with light grayish spots or V-shaped marks ; a partial postjuvenal molt apparently takes place in late winter and early spring which gives head and neck more resemblance to that of adult, but throat-patch is lighter and duller and much restricted ; at first postnuptial molt in second autumn bird assumes adult winter plumage, and with second prenuptial molt in spring of third season it takes on adult nuptial plumage ; adults apparently have a complete prenuptial molt and a com- plete postnuptial molt.

Field Marks. — Smaller than Loon ; seen here rarely in May in full nuptial plumage which is un- mistakable ; in autumn or winter, at close range, with a good glass, distinguishing white spots may be seen on upper plumage where the Loon has only light edgings ; toward spring some examples of Common Loon may show scattering white spots, but surest distinction is rather slender bill often slightly upturned (or concave at nostrils) which can be noted at longer range than spots ; however, bill varies in size and shape and often the two species are indistinguishable at a distance unless close together.

Voice. — The bird seems rather silent with us in winter but more vocal toward spring and very noisy on its breeding grounds. Russians have named it Gegara from its note, a harsh gr-r-ga gr-r, gr-r ga, gr-r, ga (E. W. Nelson) ; a goose-like honking cry, also a variety of weird loud cries similar to those of common Loon (A. C. Bent) ; ordinary call note ah ak (H. Seebohm).

Breeding. — ■ About (or in) lakes or ponds, sometimes in small shallow pools. Nest : Like the Loon, it sometimes makes no nest other than a mere hollow in sand or mud on some island. Sometimes a nest is built of vegetation, lined with straws and even a few feathers, always near water, sometimes in it where shallow. Eggs : 2 ; variable in size, about 3.00 by 1.75 in. ; vary from bister or sepia in darkest eggs to deep olive-buff ; some nearly spotless but usually well spotted with very dark shades of brown and under- lying spots of various shades of drab. Dates: May 10 to July 15, various parts of range; May 30 to July 5, Labrador and Hudson Bay (A. C. Bent). Incubation: Period 24 to 28 days (Faber) ; bot> sexes incubate (Yarrell).

LOONS 29

Range. — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. Breeds in North America from northern Alaska, Banks Island, Melville Island, Ellesmere Island, Grant Land and northern Greenland south to Com- mander Islands, western Aleutian Islands, Glacier Bay, Queen Charlotte and other British Columbia islands, southern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, south-central Quebec, New Brunswick and New- foundland ; winters in North America principally along Pacific and Atlantic coasts, in Aleutian Islands and southern British Columbia to southern California, and from Maine and Great Lakes to Florida; recorded casually in interior in eastern North America as far south as Missouri ; a few birds summer locally in northern United States ; breeds also in northern Europe and Asia and winters south to Mediter- ranean and southern China.

Distribution in New England. — Migrant and winter resident, coastwise mainly; rare in interior ; occasionally reported in summer in Maine but "does not breed" (O. W. Knight).

Season in Massachusetts. — As in New England, winter resident coastwise ; common transient visitor in autumn; less common in late winter and spring; August 27 to May 30 (July 2).

Haunts and Habits. The Red-throated Loon commonly appears in considerable numbers on our coast in late September or October but is rarely recorded in ponds or streams of the interior. Some individuals of this species winter along the New England coast. In spring the larger number either go north through the interior or else pass far out to sea as the species is much less common here in spring than in autumn. Like the common Loon it begins moving northward along our coast in March and some are still passing in May. In habits and appearance the bird is much like the common Loon while with us but it differs in one respect ; it can rise readily and fly from even a small pool, springing into the air with little difficulty, even without the aid of a breeze ; although like the Loon if frozen out of a pond in winter, it seems unable to rise from the ice and thus is captured or starved. Like the Loon, also, it uses its wings under water when necessary to increase its speed.

Dr. George Suckley noted carefully the subsurface motions of one of this species which was attempting to escape out of a lagoon to the open water of the Straits of Fuca by swim- ming through a narrow outlet. Although slightly wounded it moved so fast that he was obliged to run as rapidly as possible to keep up with it. As the water was clear and shallow, he was able to watch its motions. The neck was fully extended, and the bird used the wings as in flying in addition to the ordinary motions of the feet. "Indeed," he wrote, "the bird was flying through water instead of air." l

Mr. A. C. Bent gives the following interesting account of these Loons in the autumnal migration :

"The migration along the New England coast is mainly in October accompanying the main flight of the scoters. After leaving the fresh-water lakes of their summer homes they resort to the seacoast for migration and seem to prefer to spend the fall and winter on salt water. When traveling they fly at a great height and in a direct course along the shore, a mile or two out from land ; they usually fly singly, although often several are in sight at one time, widely scattered. There is, however, some sociability among them, most noticeable on foggy days, when they manage to keep in touch with

1 Suckley. George, and Cooper, James Graham : The Natural History of Washington Territory and Oregon, 1860, p. 280.

30 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

each other by frequent interchange of call notes, as if helping each other to maintain the same general line of flight. They are even somewhat gregarious at times, gathering in small parties on the water to rest and calling to their passing companions ; these gather- ings are sometimes quite noisy, and are well known to gunners as 'Loon caucuses.'" 1

This species while with us seems to feed mainly on fish. Its food so far as known is similar to that of the common Loon, but Mr. Bent says that it takes fish-spawn also.

Economic Status. See page 16.

Family ALCID.dE. Auks, Murres and Puffins. Number of species in North America 21 ; in Massachusetts 6.

Birds of this family, like other Pygopodes, have the legs attached to the rear end of the body, but seem to stand a little higher in the scale of evolution than the grebes and loons. They are not so highly specialized for swimming with the hind limbs, which are not provided with an extension or apophysis of the tibia beyond the knee-joint, such as in loons and grebes appears to add muscular power to the legs. The feet are webbed and three-toed (hind toe wanting). Birds of this family habitually use their wings in swimming under water. All species stand or sit more or less upright, and most of them walk badly owing to the posterior position of the legs. Most of them in sitting or walk- ing rest more or less on the tarsi, but some can stand upright on their toes. The tail is perfect, of 12 to 16 feathers (18 rarely). The bill varies much — from a shape some- what similar to those of loons or grebes, as in murres, to curious forms with ridges, fur- rows and deciduous horny protuberances, as in puffins. Head completely feathered; nostrils feathered or naked. All species are altricial, as the young ordinarily remain on land, and are fed by the parents until quite well grown or able to fly. All members of the family are normally marine, though they sometimes reach the interior in migration when their favorite northern salt waters are covered with ice.

The family reaches its highest development in the North Pacific, where the greatest numbers of genera and species are found. A few species are still abundant in parts of the North Atlantic. The family is divided into four subfamilies according to feathering of nostrils, shape and structure of bill, and other characters.

Economic Status. No exhaustive investigation of the food of auks, murres and puf- fins has been made. They have little economic importance on the coast of New England.

Subfamily FRATERCULIN5J. Puffins.

Number of species in North America 3 ; in Massachusetts 1.

This group with one exception is confined to North Pacific and Polar waters ; nostrils a mere slit, naked and remote from feathers ; bill large, flattened, much higher than wide

1 Bent, A. C. : Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Bulletin No. 107, 1919, p. 79.

PLATE 3

PLATE 3

BLACK GUILLEMOT

Page 35

Young in First Winter Plumage

Adult in Breeding Plumage

PUFFIN

Page 31

Adult in Breeding Plumage

Adult in Winter Plumage

RAZOR-BILLED AUK

Page 43 Adult in Winter Plumage

BRUNNICH'S MURRE Page 40 Adult in Winter Plumage

DOVEKIE Page 46

Winter Plumage

All one-fourth natural size.

PUFFINS 31

and supplied in breeding season with a number of deciduous plates, which increase its size, but which drop off later ; rosette at angle of mouth ; inner claw enlarged and con- siderably curved.

Fratercula arctica arctica (Linnaeus). Puffin.

Other names : sea-parrot ; paroquet. Plate 3.

Description. — Tail of 16 feathers ; a grotesque bill nearly as long as head and about as high as long, much compressed laterally and ornamented with highly-colored, deciduous, horny plates. Adults in nuptial plumage (sexes alike) : Crown grayish-black or brownish-black, usually separated by a narrow, gray, cervical line from glossy black of other upper plumage ; chin, throat, face and sides of head mainly light ashy, nearly white before eye ; color sharply defined against dark crown and neck ; dark ashy patch on each side of throat ; above from head backward, brownish-black to clear black, continuous with a broad band of same color around neck under throat ; below from neck white ; under surface of wings pearly-gray ; upright, conical, bluish, horny appendage on upper eyelid, horizontal one on lower ; naked edges of eyelids vermilion ; iris light grayish-blue or "bluish-black" (C. W. Townsend) ; base of bill and first ridge dull yellowish, next section grayish-blue, end section vermilion; tip of lower mandible and two terminal grooves often dull yellowish ; rosette at angle of mouth orange ; mouth and tongue light yellow; feet red. Adults in winter plumage: Similar; face dusky or blackish; cheeks and throat dark gray; no bright colors nor appendages on eyelids; rosette shrunken and pale; highly colored, deciduous parts of bill have been shed leaving it smaller, darker and more contracted at base, but still more or less red toward tip ; feet orange or yellow. Young in first winter plumage : Much like winter adult, but bill less developed, smaller, weaker, more pointed; above glossy brownish-black; below white; iris hazel; feet pale olive. Downy young: Above dark sooty "brown with drab shadings"; color varies in intensity in different specimens ; middle of belly white, sometimes tinged light gray or yellowish ; bill much smaller in proportion than in adult, not so convex.

Measurements. — Length 11.50 to 13.50 in.; spread 21.00 to 24.00; folded wing 6.50 to 7.50; tail 2.25 to 2.87; bill 1.60 to 1.90; arc of ridge about 2.10; tarsus 1.00 to 1.50. Female averages smaller than male.

Molts. — Apparently young birds retain first winter plumage through the next spring and later molt into winter plumage indistinguishable from that of adult. Adults have either a limited or complete prenuptial molt in spring and a partial or complete postnuptial molt in autumn.

Field Marks. — Adults at close range are unmistakable ; in autumn a young puffin with un- developed bill might be mistaken at a distance for a Razor-billed Auk or even a Briinnich's Murre ; the puffin is smaller than either, floats high on water and presents a "chunky" appearance.

Voice. — A low purring note, purr -la-la-la (C. W. Townsend) ; deep-throated mirthless laughter (J. M. Boraston) ; a long, deep, slowly rising awe (E. Selous) ; "a hoarse grunt or groan" (F. M. Chap- man).

Breeding. — Usually on sea-islands and in colonies. Nest : Usually a burrow in soil, sometimes under rock or in crevice. Eggs: 1, sometimes 2; average about 2.50 by 1.75 in. ; rounded ovate ; gran- ular; dull white, occasionally marked with indistinct spots, dots and scratches of pale purplish, some- times with splashes of pale yellowish-brown or concealed chocolate ; usually stained with earth. Dates : June 6 to July 27, Gulf of St. Lawrence and Maine. Incubation: Period 1 month (T. M. Brewer); 36 days (in incubator) ; both sexes incubate. One brood yearly.

Range. — Coasts and islands of North Atlantic. Breeds in North America from southern Green- land (casually northern Greenland) and Ungava Bay south to Nova Scotia, Bay of Fundy and eastern Maine, and in Europe from Norway and British Isles south to Portugal ; winters south to Massachusetts

32 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

and casually to Long Island, and Delaware River, Pennsylvania, and in Europe south to coast of Morocco and casually to Azores ; accidental at Ottawa (one record) ; recorded by Audubon from the Savannah River.

Distribution in New England. — Breeds off coast of Maine at Machias Seal Island and summers regularly (a few) at Matinicus Rock which is the most southerly breeding-station in the United States ; "though regularly present in summer, there is a question whether the birds now breed there at all or do so irregularly" (Arthur H. Norton); said to have laid eggs on Eastern Egg Rock in 1908; resident eastward from Machias Seal Island ; uncommon winter resident off entire Maine coast ; rare winter visitor off Massachusetts coast mainly north of Cape Cod ; accidental or casual in winter off Rhode Island coast.

Season in Massachusetts. — October 16 to March 19, Essex County (C. W. Townsend) ; Puffin found drowned in Eugene Haines' fish-trap, Sandwich, Cape Cod Bay, June 5, 1924 ; reported by Ben- jamin S. Harrison.

Haunts and Habits. "Way down east" on Machias Seal Island, off the eastern- most part of the Maine coast, lies the nearest real refuge and breeding-place of the Puffin to the United States. Here where the sea dashes heavily against jagged rocks, and the wind blows the white spray high and far, the Puffin now makes its last stand near our shores.

The serio-comic appearance of the little feathered clown is laughable. The bright and handsome colors of its nuptial array are forgotten in contemplation of its peculiar and amazing appearance. Its bright little eyes seem spectacled, while its parrot-like bill like a great, highly-colored Roman nose is masked by an outer coating which is mostly shed at the end of the breeding season. The bird stands erect like a little soldier, its red splay feet slightly straddled and planted firmly on the rock, resting not on its tail and tarsi, but standing up high and clear. Add to its ludicrous clownish appearance a voice of deep, sepulchral tones "full of the deepest feeling" and capable of harsh croak- ings, and we have a character in feathers — a solemnly comical Mr. Punch among birds.

On the wing the Puffin buzzes about as if upon important business. It tumbles out of its hole, flies down and into the sea, flies around under water, flies out again, and here it comes back to the rocks, its great "red nose " pointing the way, its little "sabre-like" wings beating the air like a threshing-machine and its red feet spread out behind. When it comes up from the depths to find that it is being overtaken by a steamboat, it is very likely to "lose its head" and show the most comical kind of apprehension and indecision. It dips its head under water as if to dive, then raises it and tries to fly, gives this up and finally dives through a wave, comes flying out on the other side and dives again until finally it has blundered and floundered out of the way. When under water it seems to use its wings mainly for progression and its feet chiefly for steering, as it does when flying in the air.

A live Puffin in captivity is rarely seen. One such was brought, about February 1, 1922, to the Department of Agriculture, State House, Boston, from Kingston by Mr. Harold Cooke, who several days previously caught the bird about 10 p.m. in his garage during a gale. How and when the Puffin entered the garage was a mystery. Although

PUFFINS 33

a wild seafowl the bird seemed at home from the beginning, and apparently knew that it was among friends. It accepted food (fish, clams and spaghetti) readily, and allowed petting. It ran across the floor, and stood quite upright when food was held out to it. It was sent to the Boston Zoological Park and was kept for some time where it had access to a pool of water. The Superintendent, Mr. George F. Morse, Jr., informed me that in swimming under water the bird used its wings for propulsion, extending them quite fully to the carpal joint but holding the primaries parallel with the body. The Puffin's wings are so small that it appears to have difficulty in rising from the water, except in a breeze ; but they move so fast that it can fly with great rapidity once in the air. On the surface it swims well.

Mr. Harrison F. Lewis kindly sends me the following notes on the erratic behavior of the Puffin on its breeding-grounds :

"Owing to its grotesque appearance, the Puffin is a most amusing and interesting bird to watch. At Perroquet Island, near Bradore, Canadian Labrador, I found that if I sat nearly motionless, even though fully exposed to view, Puffins at a little distance soon acted as if quite unconscious of my presence. This was during the period July 10-14, 1921, when incubation was going on. Every few minutes an incubating bird pattered out of its burrow, often apparently for no purpose but to relax its cramped muscles, ob- tain a breath of fresh air, and view the surroundings. After issuing from the burrow the bird usually stood up very straight, stretched itself, and fluttered its wings for a moment. One could readily imagine it yawning and complaining of the tiresomeness of incubation. "If I walked slowly toward a Puffin perched on a rock, the bird often alternated for a considerable time between the desire to escape by flight and the desire to avoid the exer- tion required to get under way. It looked at the advancing human being, apparently decided that it had better depart, crouched for a spring into the air, then, at the last in- stant seemed to find the necessary effort too great, and relaxed to watch the intruder again. As the source of trouble continued to advance, its fears temporarily gained the ascendency over its indolence, and the performance was repeated. After several repeti- tions of this behavior the bird finally pitched forward into headlong, clumsy flight.

"Considerable numbers of Puffins were almost always resting on the water near Per- roquet Island. I found that if I approached these slowly and quietly, by gently sculling a small rowboat, their curiosity impelled them to swim slowly toward me. When within twelve or fifteen feet of the boat, however, they were likely to be seized with fear and fly hurriedly away."

It is extremely unfortunate, to say the least, that this remarkable bird should now be in some danger of extirpation on American shores. The thousands of these birds that once bred along the coast from the Maine islands to near the Arctic Circle are largely gone — the victims of the fishermen and eggers of the United States and Canada. Let us hope that our Canadian neighbors will find some means to save the remnant of these swarming hosts, for their presence adds something to the joy of living. Puffins are now rare winter visitors to the coast of southern New England. Indeed we have no record

34 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

from the Connecticut coast, and the birds are seen in Massachusetts chiefly in hard winters and mainly along the rocky shores of our northeastern county of Essex where a few are met with occasionally near Cape Ann. They are seldom seen here on shore and probably never in their nuptial plumage which they molt in August and September. At this time also they shed their primaries like many species of ducks and are unable to fly, so that if overtaken by a severe storm far at sea they are said to perish by thousands. During the autumnal molt the birds shed the coating of the bill in nine pieces, and with it go the bright colors of the nuptial season. When the wing quills have grown again, the birds migrate southward but normally keep far from land.

Dr. Charles W. Townsend in Bulletin No. 107 of the Smithsonian Institution de- scribes the courtship of this bird as follows :

" I have watched groups of these birds off the southern coast of Labrador during the courtship season. They swim together in closely crowded ranks, rarely diving, for their thoughts are not on food. At frequent intervals individuals rise up in the water and flap their wings as if from nervousness. Again two males fight vigorously, flapping their wings meanwhile and making the water foam about them. Again two, possibly a pair, hold each other by the bills and move their heads and necks like billing doves. Now several are seen to throw their heads back with a jerk until the bill points up, and this is repeated a number of times. Edmund Selous (1905), who has watched this action near at hand in the puffins of the Shetlands, says the bill is opened wide but no sound is uttered. The brilliant lining of the mouth is therefore the result of sexual selection and it evidently forms a part of the courtship display." 1

The Puffin usually nests in colonies. A famous one is that on Perroquet Island, visited by many ornithologists since Audubon (1840) whose description is vivid. The burrows are dug in a steep slope or bank of some island and carried inward, downward and upward for an arm's length or more. In some cases the burrow curves so that the nest is close beneath the entrance hole. The nest consists of a little dead grass with sometimes a few feathers. In reaching into a nest I have found gloves very useful, as the Puffin often is at home and will bite and scratch like a cat or as much like one as a bird can. Its claws and beak are sharp and strong.

Dr. Townsend says that the work of burrowing falls chiefly to the male, and that at times he is so intent on it that he allows himself to be caught in the hand. The claws, especially the inner, are strong, curved and sharp and thus especially adapted for digging. Dr. Townsend informs us that the young are able at the age of four or five weeks to fol- low their mothers to sea.

Puffins are very hardy birds and do not commonly migrate very far south of their breeding range. They appear during the latter half of October off the coast of Massa- chusetts in very small numbers and are believed to go northward in March. Migration dates, however, are almost wholly lacking.

Puffins feed largely on small fish and other forms of marine life. Doubtless also the

1 Bent, A. C. : Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Bulletin No. 107, 1919, p. 90.

GUILLEMOTS 35

powerful bill enables them to crush small crustaceans and mollusks as do the Tufted Puffins on the Pacific coast.

Economic Status. See page 30.

Note. Audubon figures and describes a Tufted Puffin (Lunda cirrhata (Pallas)) shot, he says, in the winter of 1831-32 by a fisherman-gunner at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine. No other bird of the species was seen. The skin of this bird is said to have been deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. As the only specimen there that is accredited to Audubon is labeled as taken on the Pacific coast, the Audubon record for Maine may be questionable.1 This species was recorded also by Verrill in New Brunswick. There is no record of its capture in Massachusetts. Kumlien says (Polar Expedition, 1877-78) : "Off the North Labrador coast I noticed on several occa- sions a small auk (?) intermediate in size between Mergulus alle and Uria grylle, with much the same pattern of coloration as the former, but with tufts or plumes of white feathers on the head. I saw some with single young, and at one time killed three at a single discharge ; but the ship was under such headway that the sailor stationed in the waist could not reach them with his pole and net. The bird is entirely unknown to me, but I suspect it will be found to be one of the small auks hitherto supposed to belong only to the North Pacific." 2

Dr. J. A. Allen also reports the probable occurrence of one of the auklets on Cape Cod.3 The bird was described to him by an intelligent and trustworthy gunner and fisherman. Dr. Allen believed it to be "apparently" a Crested Auklet (Mihia cristatella) .

If such Pacific coast species have really been known to appear on the Atlantic coast of the Continent, there is a bare possibility that some of these Alcidge may occur sometimes on the coast of Massachusetts. The Tufted Puffin is easily identified by its great bill and the long, streaming, yellowish tufts on each side of the head.

Subfamily ^ITHIIN^;. Auklets, Mureelets and Guillemots.

Number of species in North America 14 ; in Massachusetts 1.

Nostrils naked or incompletely covered by feathers ; bill with or without deciduous appendages ; with or without crests ; inner claw not specialized.

Cepphus grylle (Linnaeus). Black Guillemot.

Other names: white-winged guillemot; white guillemot; sea pigeon.

Plate 8.

Description. — Bill straight, sharp-pointed ; wings rather short ; first primary longest ; tail of 12 feathers. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Sooty-black with slight greenish reflections (darker on back) ; wings and tail black ; lesser upper wing-coverts, terminal half of greater upper wing- coverts, axillars and under wing-coverts white ; in some specimens narrow band of black in white wing- patch ; iris brown or black ; bill and claws black ; mouth and feet carmine, vermilion or coral-red ; in July wings begin to fade and in August wings and tail become gray, white upper wing-coverts become soiled and plumage loses its green gloss ; as molt proceeds, bird becomes more or less marbled with black and white, back retaining much black. Adults in winter plumage: Wings and tail black; wing-patch as in summer white ; head and neck, rump and under plumage mainly white ; back, hind neck and top

1 Ornithological Biography, Vol. Ill, 1835, p. 364.

2 Kumlien, Ludwig : Bulletin of the United States National Museum, No. 15, 1879, p. 103.

3 Auk, Vol. II, 1885, p. 388.

36

BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

Downy Young Black Guillemot About i natural size.

of head blackish-dusky and white, varying in individuals; some old birds may retain black plumage through winter. Young in first winter plumage : Similar to winter adults but less white and more dusky, particularly on head ; white wing-patches much obscured and broken by black tips of feathers. Young

in juvenal plumage (acquired usually in August) : Sooty- black above, white below, heavily mottled on sides with dusky, less so on breast and belly and finely spotted on throat (A. C. Bent). Downy young: Sooty-black above, somewhat paler or grayish below.

Measurements. — Length 12.00 to 14.00 in. ; spread about 23.00 ; folded wing 6.00 to 7.30 ; tail about 2.00 ; bill about 1.30; tarsus 1.25. Male averages slightly larger than female.

Molts. — Juvenal plumage is soon replaced by first winter plumage, which change is completed in October or later ; in spring young birds molt either wholly or partly into black and white plumage of adult; spring molt in- cludes all but wings and tail and is much prolonged or varies greatly in date ; some birds appear in full summer plumage by February 1 ; others are still in practically full winter plumage in May, and some are still molting as late as June 18 (birds in both summer and winter plumage may be seen before March 1 off coast of Massachusetts) ; they assume adult winter plumage in second autumn (A. C. Bent).

Field Marks. — Slightly smaller than Green-winged Teal. The White-winged Scoter is the only New England bird that at all resembles this species in summer ; but white wing-patches of Guillemot are farther forward, much larger and more conspicuous when the bird floats on the water ; also Guillemot is much smaller than Scoter and has smaller, narrower and more pointed bill ; nothing like it in our waters when in its "white" winter plumage.

Voice. — "A faint, shrill, piping whistle. When disturbed on nest, a hissing note" (A. C. Bent) ; a hoarse, whining whistle (A. J. Parker).

Breeding. — On sea-islands or shore-cliffs. Nest : In crevice, rift or fissure in cliff or sea-ledge, or space under some rock, or among large loose rocks, often so far back under rock as to be inaccessible. Eggs: Laid on bare ground, rock, pebbles or gravel. Usually 2, rarely 1 ; about 2.25 to 2.50 by 1.50 to 1.60 in. ; nearly elliptical ; white, bluish-white, greenish-white or creamy, sometimes covered with small spots of various shades of brown and lilac ; more often with fewer small spots and with large spots grouped about larger end. Dates: June 12 to July 16, Maine (A. C. Bent). Incubation: Period about 21 days (A. C. Bent). One brood yearly.

Range. — Coasts and islands of northeastern North America and northwestern Europe. Breeds from Maine to southern Greenland and Ungava (northern Quebec) ; winters from Cumberland Sound south to Cape Cod and casually to New Jersey and Pennsylvania ; in Europe breeds from Iceland east to Scandinavia and White Sea and south to northern Scotland ; in winter south to northern France.

Distribution in New England. — Common winter resident coastwise in Maine and occasionally seen in open ponds and rivers; a not uncommon summer resident and breeder on Maine islands from Eastern Egg Rock eastward ; rather uncommon winter visitant coastwise in New Hampshire ; very rare and irregular in winter coastwise in Rhode Island ; recorded once in Connecticut.

Season in Massachusetts. — August 28 to April 23 ; rather common winter visitant as far south as Massachusetts Bay ; usually most common in January and February ; reported casually in July at Nahant.

Haunts and Habits. The sinuous coast of Maine is a little over 1,300 miles in length, so many are the islands and so irregular and deeply indented are the rock-ribbed

GUILLEMOTS 37

shores.* The deep bays, coves and inlets offer some of the finest harbors in the land, and off shore lie scores of little rocky islands and dozens of low sandy islets, many of which are in summer the nurseries of sea-birds. Some of these sea-girt islands, some forested more or less with spruce and fir, are frequented by the handsome, little Black Guillemot. Their rocky formation and the loose blocks of stone and boulders piled upon them afford ideal nesting sites for a bird that seeks a secure place to hide its eggs.

There, above ordinary high-water mark, the "Sea Pigeon" makes its home, well back under some great stone ; or it inhabits the rifts of bare ledges far out at sea. The little domicile requires no furnishing, as the bird is a primitive cave dweller, its roof the sheltering rock, overlooking the heaving sea. Here in their little caves the downy young are fed, and from their rocky fastnesses they go out into a world of water and of sky. Often during cruises along the Maine coast I have watched the Guillemots flying back and forth between their great storehouse, the sea, and their little caves in the rocks.

Now and then you may see the male in his courtship pursuing the female. He is an ardent lover, but she is coy. She dives and he pursues her. She comes to the surface and he is close at her heels. She swims away and he follows, running and splashing along the water. She flies and he chases after, until finally she seems to accept his attentions as if to be rid of his importunities. The mating over, they hunt for a suitable cavity as remote and inaccessible to their enemies as possible. They are gregarious and often may be seen in groups sitting on the rocks close to the sea. Normally in many parts of their range they nested in large colonies, but along the coasts of the Maritime Canadian Prov- inces their eggs have been taken for food so constantly throughout the season that the numbers of the species are few compared with its former abundance. In Maine where many island colonies are protected by wardens of the National Association of Audubon Societies, the Guillemots have a better chance for undisturbed nesting; and as they frequently find crevices where their eggs and young are inaccessible, their numbers have not been so reduced as have those of other species whose nesting places are more conspicuous.

In flight this species progresses swiftly, usually close to the water, its white wing- patches flashing in the sunlight and its bright red feet extended behind. On the water it rides as buoyantly as a Wood Duck. When approached by a boat, it has a trick of lowering the head quickly and repeatedly as if about to go under, but it is more likely to fly than to dive. In rising from the water, which it does easily, it aids itself by striking the surface with its feet. In diving and swimming under water it uses its wings more than its feet and seems to fly rapidly under water.

In New England the Black Guillemot may be looked for in winter (and even in sum- mer) on rock-bound coasts. It leaves its breeding-places when the young are able to care for themselves. Many of this species winter slightly south of their summer range. It commonly drifts southward along the Maine coast from September until late Decem-

* The United States Geological Survey gives the tidal shore-line of the mainland as 558 miles and of the islands, 761 miles, a total of 1,319 miles. (Bulletin No. 689 : United States Geological Survey, p. 220.)

38 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

ber. Early in March it turns northward, and its numbers in New England waters begin to decrease.

Small fishes, little mussels and other small shellfish, crustaceans, marine worms and insects seem to form the principal food of the species, but Selous asserts that he has seen it eating seaweed.1

Economic Status. See page 30.

Subfamily ALCIN.32. Auks and Murres.

Number of species in North America 3 ; in Massachusetts 3.

Nostrils linear, densely feathered, quite covered by feathers; bill long with no append- ages ; no crests ; these birds are the largest of the family and are abundant in the North Atlantic.

Head of Murre Head of Brunnich's Murre

Both | natural size.

Uria trollle troille (Linnaeus). Murre.

Other names: common murre; foolish guillemot.

Description. — Bill long and rather slender ; tail of 12 feathers. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Head and neck rich, dark brown (sometimes olive-brown), in some cases a little grayer on crown ; other upper plumage dark sooty-brown ; most feathers of back and rump with slightly lighter edges ; secondaries narrowly but sharply tipped white ; sides and flanks mainly white, streaked lightly or heavily dusky-brown ; below from throat or lower fore neck pure white ; lining of wings white, varied with dusky-brown ; bill black ; inside of mouth yellow ; iris dark brown ; feet dark or blackish ; some individuals have narrow white ring around eye with white line extending back from it above ear region (this variation is responsible for the form ringvia, recognized as a species by Ridgway). Adults in winter plumage : Similar, but white of under plumage extends to bill, up sides of head to mouth, and up sides of neck, leaving only narrow band of dark brown on back of neck ; also a white stripe extends upward and forward from white of neck on either side of upper hind head, separated from white of throat by a dark stripe running back from eye ; bill and feet lighter or more brownish than in breeding plumage. Young in first winter plumage : Smaller ; very similar, but with less white (or no white) on sides of head and slight mottling or washing of dusky on throat and fore neck ; bill smaller and "like the feet in part light colored." Downy young: Grayish-brown above, almost black on head and neck which are variegated with long, whitish or buffy filaments ; throat often mottled white ; below whitish.

i Selous, Edmund : The Bird Watcher in the Shetlands, 1905, p. 203.

MURRES 39

Measurements. — Length about 17.00 in.; spread about 30.00; folded wing 7.75 to 8.30; tail about 2.25; bill 1.60 to 2.45; tarsus 1.35 to 1.60. Female averages smaller than male.

Molts. — Juvenal plumage not much different in color from that of downy young ; by October 1 replaced by first winter plumage ; partial molt in spring followed by plumage closely resembling breeding dress of adult ; in next autumn immature bird molts again, and takes on adult winter plumage ; this is soon molted and some birds appear in spring plumage in December; adults have a complete molt in autumn (July or August to November) and a complete molt November to April.

Field Marks. — Size larger than teal ; in any plumage may be distinguished from Razor-billed Auk (in field) and Bninnich's Murre (in hand) by its longer, more slender bill, and from winter loons by its much smaller size, white cross-line on wing and unspotted and very dark back ; bills of young birds are shorter and more slender than those of adults; hence confusion may arise between the young of both murres, also Razor-bills and Puffins, all of which are difficult to distinguish in the field.

Voice. — Adults — Arr-r-r-r — orr-r-r-r — errr-r-r-r ; young — Irrr-r-r-idd — Irrr-r-r-idd (Gatke) ; "a soft, purring sound suggested by its name" (A. C. Bent).

Breeding. — In colonies on sea-islands. Nest : None ; egg laid on shelf of rocky cliff, or on earth or rock. Eggs: 1; 3.00 to 3.50 by 2.00 in.; "ovate pyriform" to "elliptical ovate"; light green, light blue, creamy or whitish or other light, varying shades variously washed, spotted and otherwise marked with shades, lines and scrawls of brown, lilac, olive, lavender, etc., and often clouded or washed with two or three colors. Dates: May 20 to July 25, Gulf of St. Lawrence (A.C.Bent). Incubation: Period about 28 to 30 days. One brood yearly.

Range. — Coasts and islands of North Atlantic and northeastward in Arctic to Spitzbergen. Breeds in North America from southern Greenland and southern Ungava (central Quebec) south to Magdalen Islands and Newfoundland (formerly to Nova Scotia) ; winters south to Maine ; casual in Massachu- setts ; breeds in Europe south to coast of Portugal, and winters south to Mediterranean and west coast of Morocco ; recorded from Canary Islands.

Distribution in New England. — Casual in winter off coast; doubtless formerly more common ; doubtless, also, less rare than supposed; "was years ago a regular breeder off Cape Sable Island and at Gannet Rock in the Gulf of Maine" (Arthur H. Norton) ; only four positive Massachusetts specimens (all in collection of Boston Society of Natural History) : * Bird in full breeding plumage taken June 26, 1913, at Penikese Island by Dr. Stanley Cobb; male taken May 18, 1921, at Essex by A. B. Fuller; bird taken March 29, 1922, at Brant Rock, Marshfield; male sent to me by Rev. Smith O. Dexter from Westport Point (where it was taken April 7, 1923) and transferred to Boston Society of Natural History. There is also in the Society's collection a specimen labeled merely "Massachusetts" and recorded by Dr. G. M. Allen.2 Captain Donald B. MacMillan reports taking a Murre in the winter of 1920 in Provincetown Harbor, but the specimen was not preserved.

Haunts and Habits. The Murre which formerly bred in countless numbers on the coast and islands of the North Atlantic has been reduced to an insignificant remnant of its former hosts by the insane policy of slaughter and plunder which has possessed many people in the United States and some of their Canadian neighbors ever since the settlement of the country.

Samuels (1867) intimated that the Murre was rather common in his day on our coast, but evidently he failed to separate it from the next species.3

i Brooks, W. Sprague: Auk, Vol. XLI, 1924, p. 163.

2 Occasional Papers of the Boston Society of Natural History, VII. Fauna of New England, II. List of the Aves. Bostony June, 1909, p. 6.

3 Samuels, Edward A. : Birds of New England, 1870, p. 570.

40 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS ■

Knight records a single specimen taken in Maine and placed in the collection of the Portland Society of Natural History and notes that the species is said to have nested formerly on Grand Menan.1

Occasionally the Murre is reported on the Massachusetts coast in winter, but prob- ably most of these cases are referable to Brunnich's Murre. I have never knowingly seen the bird alive. For the best, fullest and most recent life-history of the species the reader is referred to Bulletin No. 107, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Life Histories of North American Diving Birds, by Mr. Arthur Cleveland Bent, a work for which all ornithologists owe the author a debt of gratitude.

Economic Status. See page 30.

Uria lomvia lomvia (Linnaeus). Brunnich's Murre.

Other name: thick-billed guillemot. Plate 3.

Description. — Bill short, wide and deep, upper outline of upper mandible curved throughout, its cutting edges dilated and denuded toward base where those of Murre are feathered ; this bare space flesh-colored in life ; tail of 12 feathers. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Similar to Murre, but crown and nape darker, contrasting with lighter and browner sides of head; form more robust; "legs light colored" (Lord Lilford). Adults in winter plumage: Similar; upper parts dusky or sooty, more or less glossy ; sides of head brownish to .50 inch below eye ; sooty of neck nearly meets at point in front, almost forming a collar and nearly enclosing white of throat ; tips of secondaries white as in sum- mer ; below pure white ; linings of wings mainly white. Young in first winter plumage : Fully 2 inches shorter than adult and much less in other measurements; bill smaller, thinner and generally weaker; similar to winter adult but often lighter on back, and somewhat spotted or washed with dusky on throat. Downy young : Blackish above, varying individually to various shades of brown, shading off to brownish- gray on throat and sides ; many long whitish or pale buff filaments on head and neck ; breast and belly mainly white or whitish but less white below than in preceding species.

Measurements. — Length 18.00 to 19.75 in.; spread 24.50 to 32.00; folded wing 7.45 to 8.80; tail about 2.25; bill about 1.40; tarsus 1.40 to 1.55.

Molts. — Plumage and plumage changes of this species are very similar to those of the Murre.

Field Marks. — Size of a small duck ; practically indistinguishable from Common Murre in field ; barely distinguishable from it (if seen close to) only by the thicker, shorter, stouter bill, darker head and light flesh-colored stripe on mandible near gape ; from the Razor-billed Auk, in field, by its smaller, more slender bill ; from loons or grebes by its plain black back and the white line on the wing ; when murres of either species are rising or alighting on the water their bodies seem to flatten ; if viewed from behind when on wing, the white feathers of flanks and white under tail-coverts overlap on to the black back and tail respectively so that white shows behind wings on both sides of rump and tail ; when the birds are seen flying en profile the white wing linings show and might be mistaken at a distance for a white wing patch.

Voice. — Young birds — shrill emphatic cries like "beat it, beat it" ; adults — a soft purring note and a loud croaking (A. C. Bent) ; a hoarse, guttural note ; another like the bleating of a sheep (Turner).

Breeding. — On sea-islands in colonies. Nest: None; egg laid on bare ledge of rocky cliff. Eggs: 1, perhaps rarely 2 ; great variety of colors and markings (a few spotless) but most of them indistinguish- able either in size or color from those of preceding species. Dates : Those given by Mr. Bent from Green-

1 Knight, Ora W. : Birds of Maine, 1908, p. 34.

MURRES 41

land, Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence run from June 5 to July 18. Incubation : Period about 28 days (A. C. Bent) ; both sexes incubate. One brood yearly.

Range. — Coasts and islands of North Atlantic and Arctic. Breeds in North America from northern Greenland and coasts and islands of Arctic Ocean south to Gulf of St. Lawrence ; stated by Manly Hardy (in Vol. II, of the Osprey for 1897, p. 26) to have bred "over 50 years ago" [about 1847 Ed.] on a Maine island ; in Europe breeds on Arctic islands and in Asia along parts of Siberian coasts ; winters from edge of ice in southern Greenland south off Atlantic coast to Delaware, more rarely to South Carolina ; more or less common occasionally in region of Great Lakes ; rarely south of Great Britain and North Sea.

Distribution in New England. — Common winter visitant along Maine coast and accidental inland ; irregular winter visitor coastwise (but sometimes locally abundant) in the other sea-coast states ; casual or accidental in most of interior but has been common transient at times on Lake Champlain, Vermont.

Season in Massachusetts. — October 27 to May 1.

Haunts and Habits. Along the bleak, desolate, rocky and inhospitable shores of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to northern Green- land, Briinnich's Murre in migration or in summer is one of the commonest of the water- fowl. It bred formerly in countless thousands on the coasts and islands of Newfoundland and Labrador, but now it is found in such immense numbers only in its far northern retreats where the white man rarely goes.

Mr. A. C. Bent gives an account by Mr. Elmer Ekblaw of a rookery of these birds on Saunders Island where he says there are literally millions ; that the noise they make is appalling, and that when they leave the island cliffs at the sound of a gun, the rush of wings sounds like a passing tornado.

The egg of a Murre is more or less flattened on the sides and pointed at the small end so that when it is disturbed or displaced, it tends to roll in a circle and stay on the ledge where it lies. When the birds are suddenly alarmed, many eggs are displaced, never- theless, by the owners themselves and pushed off the rock and into the sea. A Murre does not sit upon its single egg like most birds, but stands erect over it like a penguin and pokes it into place with the bill.

Murres can dive at the flash of a gun and are difficult to kill at long range. They use their wings for under-water swimming at which they are as expert as a loon. The following notes from Mr. and Mrs. Richard B. Harding show at least one method em- ployed by an individual of this species in swimming under water. Three birds were ob- served February 27, 1921, from Cunningham's Bridge, Cohasset, Massachusetts, swim- ming in a tidal stream. Mrs. Harding says :

"The circumstances were quite unusual. Mr. Harding and I observed the birds from a bridge some twelve feet above the water which was clear, so we could plainly see the actions of the nearest bird. The birds were now diving at inter- vals, and averaged 30-35 seconds under water ; one was diving close to the bridge from which we could distinctly see it under water, swimming with powerful strokes of the wings, held as in cut, Position under water- primaries parallel and most of the power in the wing-butts. It dived in the ordinary feeble fluttering manner of the murre using both wings and feet, but once under water

42

BIKDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

it seemed to drag the feet and use the wings or, to be more exact, wing-butts, entirely. In this connection it is interesting to note why it was diving. The current was bearing it towards the bridge somewhat faster than the bird could swim on the surface. By swim- ming under the surface it could gain on the current, thereby indicating more speed under than on the surface. The bird was neither frightened nor feeding.

" The wings were used on the descent and on the level under water, but on rising to the surface were held rigid in the position above indicated."

Diagram Showing Position of Observers and Position and Progress of Bird under Water as Observed by Mr. and Mrs. Harding

3-ridge

jrinjsj^ed.

te.

r>

-» Current

"The cut shows clearly the position of the observer while observing the bird's actions under water. Depth of water 8 to 10 feet."

Usually not many birds of this species arrive until late November off the Massachu- setts coast where they seem most numerous usually in January and February. Com- monly they remain well offshore but sometimes, particularly during severe easterly storms, they come into open estuaries. Captain Donald B. MacMillan tells me that at such times the exhausted birds while asleep have been killed with oars by boys in Prov- incetown Harbor. They frequent waters off both rocky and sandy shores. In New England they are found most commonly on the Maine coast and on the northernmost shores of Massachusetts. By March they are again moving northward, and in May and June they reach the farthest northern points at which they are known to breed. In some winters a few of these birds are found scattered about the interior as far or farther south than the Great Lakes. Such a dispersal to the interior is believed to be caused in some cases by storms ; but Mr. J. H. Fleming gives good reasons for the belief that sometimes the Murres are driven out of Hudson Bay by the freezing of the surface, and so fly southward seeking open water, many of them becoming exhausted and coming to earth in their fruitless search. There have been record flights in the late fall on the lower lakes (Erie and Ontario) when most of the birds die, seemingly of starvation.

Brunnich's Murre feeds on small fishes, crustaceans and other marine food, as do all Murres. Its food has never been carefully studied.

Economic Status. See page 30.

AUKS 43

Alca torda Linnaeus. Razor-billed Auk.

Other names : tinker ; ice-bird ; sea crow, plate 3.

Description. — Bill much compressed laterally; knife-like upper mandible hooked and cross- grooved; tail of 12 feathers. Adults in breeding plumage (sexes alike) : Head and upper neck all around and other upper plumage generally dark brown or slaty-black, brown on sides of head and neck, much darker on top of head, deepening to slaty-black on other upper plumage; glossy on back; a sunken white line from base of upper mandible to upper eyelid ; secondaries narrowly and sharply tipped white ; below, including under wing-coverts and axillars, white ; bill slaty or black, white band crossing both mandibles near middle ; inside of mouth yellow ; iris dark brown or bluish ; feet black. Adults in winter plumage : Similar but white below reaches bill and sides of neck ; conspicuous white line before eye now obliterated, but white line across bill remains. Young in first winter plumage : Similar to winter adult but smaller, duller and paler ; much more white or gray about head and neck ; bill very much smaller, more pointed and lacking grooves and white cross-line of adult bill. Downy young : Variable ; sooty or blackish-brown ; lighter or more brown on rump ; overlaid with rufous on crown ; paler or much lighter, often whitish, on head, neck and below. More or less of the downy filaments above are paler at tips giving chick a lighter appearance than would be given by the down alone.

Measurements. — Length 16.00 to 18.50 in.; spread 25.00 to 27.00; folded wing 7.75 to 8.50; tail about 3.50; bill 1.25 to 1.30; tarsus 1.25 to 1.40.

Molts. — The natal down is changed in a few weeks for juvenal plumage, and very soon winter dress is assumed, so that young bird is in first winter dress in late September or early October ; after a partial prenuptial molt in spring the head takes on a nuptial plumage similar to that of adult, but youth of bird can be determined by smaller and more pointed bill which lacks grooves so prominent on that of adult ; date of this prenuptial molt varies ; there is a complete postnuptial molt beginning in August after which young bird assumes adult winter plumage; adults have a partial prenuptial molt of body feathers in winter or spring (date varying greatly) and complete postnuptial molt in autumn.

Field Marks. — Adults in winter plumage (as we see them) may be distinguished from Brtinnich's Murre by stouter build, larger head, longer tail and (especially) compressed, hooked bill ; sometimes when seen on water at a little distance, white line across bill seems to cut off its end, and head appears like that of a pig ; shortened neck contracts the white on its side into a more or less narrow band extending up nearly to nape, and bird appears as a dark pig-headed bird crossed by two white marks ; white on sides of neck extends up much farther toward nape than in Murre ; Mr. Bent tells us that Dr. C. W. Town- send remarks that when "Razor-bills" fly away, they show white on either side of a black median line (murres show this also), while the Puffin under such circumstances shows a solid black back ; the "Razor- bill" often (but not always) carries its comparatively long tail upright when resting or swimming on the water ; the Murre sometimes does this, but tail is shorter than that of Razor-bill.

Voice. — Hoarse, guttural notes or low croaking sounds (A. C. Bent) ; notes in courtship like syllables odd arr and hur-ray (F. O. Morris).

Breeding. — On sea islands ; in colonies. Nest : None ; eggs laid on ledge of rock or in fissure in cliff, resting on bare rock or small stones, in plain sight or partially concealed. Eggs: 1 (rarely 2 are found together) ; 3.00 by scant 2.00 in. (Coues) ; elliptical-ovate or elongate-ovate, never really pear- shaped ; shell coarse, thick, tough and lustreless ; sometimes resemble some Murres' eggs in color (though never green) but not in shape ; color varies from bluish- or greenish-white or pinkish-buff to dull yellow or yellowish ; markings vary from small spots to blotches and scrawls of darker shades of brown. Dates : May 24 to July 25, Gulf of St. Lawrence. Incubation : Period about 30 days (in incubator) ; by both sexes (A. C. Bent).

Range. — Coasts and islands of North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Breeds in America from Green- land south to Newfoundland and New Brunswick, formerly occasionally to Maine, and in Europe from Iceland south to British Isles and Channel Islands and east to coast of Norway and Lapland ; winters

44 BIRDS OF MASSACHUSETTS

from southern Labrador south to Ontario, Long Island, and rarely or casually to Virginia and North Carolina, and in Europe south from British Isles to Azores and Canary Islands and east to Mediterranean and Adriatic seas ; recorded in interior of America west to Lake Ontario.

Distribution in New England. — Common winter visitant coastwise in Maine ; not uncommon in some winters on coasts of New Hampshire and Massachusetts ; less common on those of Rhode Island and Connecticut; sometimes abundant locally off outlying points on any of these coasts except Con- necticut.

Season in Massachusetts. — Not uncommon irregular winter visitant coastwise ; October 27 to April 15 (May 12).

Haunts and Habits. After a long easterly winter storm, in clearing weather when the dark blue wintry seas are stirred by the gusts of a brisk northwester, we may find the hardy " Razor-bill" riding at ease off the storm-beaten ledges of the North Shore. It swims lightly, swiftly and easily with head sometimes raised but commonly drawn in and often the tail is cocked jauntily upward. It flies with the head held close to the body and level with it and does not stretch its neck forward like a loon, cormorant or murre but, like murres, it tips from side to side in flight, showing its breast and back alternately. Like auks, murres and guillemots in general it employs its wings in under-water flight, raising them as it dives and using them either partly closed like fins or not quite as fully opened as in flight. It is an expert diver going down to great depths and swimming for long distances under water.

On March 12, 1922, on the beach at Nantucket I surprised a "Razor-bill" apparently asleep on some seaweed close to the water. In my attempt to catch the bird it menaced me with open bill, flapping wings and strident cries, but before I could seize it, it plunged into the water and swam and dived, opening its wings to nearly full length when under water and moving them backward and forward. The bird moved fast, but the wings were not flapped so rapidly as when used in the air. I could not see the feet ; apparently i A they were hidden by the tail. I saw the same bird or an-

<^2^^Z^> i^~\ °ther g° °ff from the beach in the same way later in the

"^N r^~ U\f\i day. The wing motion was absolutely unlike that observed

Forwani SiroAe JacAJtratc in Briinnich's Murre by Mr. and Mrs. Harding (page 41) or

that observed in the Razor-bill by several authorities.

Selous asserts that the wings are "raised from and brought downwards again towards the sides in the same position in which they repose against them when closed." l This is a very different motion from the one that I observed, for in that case the wings were not brought near the body (see cut).