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_ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA
co ee EUGENE ALLEN SMITH, State Geologist

MONOGRAPH 8

» _BCONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA
ee PART 1

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA

EUGENE ALLEN SMITH, Stade Geologist

MONOGRAPH 8

Economic Botany of Alabama

PART 1.

GEOGRAPHICAL REPORT

Including Descriptions of the Natural Divisions of the
State, their Forests and Forest Industries,
with Quantitative Analyses and
Statistical Tables.

By
ROLAND M. HARPER

UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA
JUNE, 1913

245

PRESS
BROWN PRINTING CO.
MONTGOMERY
ALABAMA

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
To His EXCELLENCY,
GOVERNOR EMMETT O’ NEAL,
MONTGOMERY, ALA.

Dear Sir:—I have the honor to transmit herewith
Part I of a report on the Economic Botany of Alabama,
by Dr. Roland M. Harper.

The plan of the present Geological Survey, organized
in 1873, embraced the investigation of all the natural re-
sources of the State, geological, agricultural, botanical,
etc. The great work of Dr. Charles Mohr on the Plant
Life of Alabama, published in 1901, was the first of the
botanical series, and it was planned to supplement this
systematic catalogue of our native plants with reports on
their economic aspects. Dr. Mohr died before this part
of the work could be taken up by him.

Dr. Harper, the author of this report, has been in the
South most of the time since 1887, and in the last ten
years has studied the forest conditions in all the south-
eastern states, particularly Georgia, Florida and Ala-
ama, having been employed on Geological Surveys of
each of these three states. His work in Alabama, begin-
ning in 1905, has covered something over two years all
told, and has extended over practically all parts of the
State. Since 1908 he has revisited about half of the
counties and has taken over three hundred photographs
of Alabama scenery, without cost to the Survey. Forty-
eight of these photographs, together with some older
ones belonging to the Survey collection, are used to illus-
trate the present report, and many others, together with
a great mass of field notes already in hand, will be avail-
able for future reports.

Part I of the Economic Botany of the State, now sub-
mitted, is a geographical report on the forests and forest
industries of each of the natural divisions of the State,
together with quantitative analyses of the forests of
each region, something, so far as we know, not before
attempted for a whole state.

This forms the natural introduction to the other
botanical reports which are planned to fellow, viz: Part
II, a catalogue of the trees and shrubs, with their dis-
tribution and economic properties; Part III, the medicinal
plants, the weeds and other useful or noxious plants not
included in the preceding parts.

Very respectfully,
University of Alabama, EUGENE A. SMITH.
March 26, 1913.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CORPS, 1913.

Hugene Allen’ Smith; (Phi Da Lie De SS ee State Geologist
William: BY ‘Prowty) Ph) Wes. ee ouloem 5 hates ae Chief Assistant
Robert. S:\ Hodgest2 2a) 245 Sac ee See eee eee nee Chemist
Herbert: He asmiths 22 = 5 ae een aero ee ee ee Curator of Museum
Mrs7 Een Werueiice smth =.= eee Voluntary Assistant Curator
Rolandivirskarpenss Eh.. J) sie. es 2S eee Botanist
George Ne, Brewer: =— 2-2 3° 2322s == se Field Assistant
Our Abelesret. = Clerk in charge of Statistics of Mineral Production
James As Anderson: 22 2 oe Clerk in charge of Mailing List
ACTED ONO HG Ake 2 L sti ED ED. SEE oe Stenographer

RIVER GAUGE HEIGHT OBSERVERS.

OPieeStower Se ee ees _& Jackson’s Gap, Tallapoosa River
J. pcm bitehes d: 22222). ee Riverside, Coosa River
LOMB SCS = 2 Dea ee SS ee ee ee ee Epes, Tombigbee River
WAG... barly 2... ee ee Pera, Pea River
SiPS Dillard. 242222.) 24 be be ee ees Beck, Conecuh River

From the records of daily observations of the gauge readings at
these places when extended through sufficient time, the calculations
of available horsepower to be obtained from the different streams are
made.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Map showing geographical divisions or forest regions_ Frontispiece

PAGES

SCE SMO teal TT Ona GLO! = = eee ee Se 9-15
"EAT UIA OVS TEENY ON Tap ee Ae a i PS a Ls eee eed Se eee 10-15
PNCKTOW LEU SINICTIUS a Se sree cre ie ee eg ee 15
Principles of geographical classification______--_--_----_-_-- 17-22
ico Geciona le deSChiptlons= == a = see ee ee ee 23-34
The hill country and coastal plain contrasted_____--_---_--- 35-36
iesnesions im, details 5-2 se = ee el ee ee 37-128
BU SCOUNGR Y= = 2 2 erie Benen: oaee ee | fem oo See et 37-71

ik Nennesseevalley rerion=—_ =.= =. sa sent aes 37-47

A. Barrens>.orm-ichiland sRimesss 22sec ts aie 387-40

B. Valley proper (including Brown’s Valley) -_--40—47

2. Coal region (Carboniferous) UG Ls Roped Te cae nth. oY 47-57

A. Northern portion, or plateau region_-____-- 47-52

B. Southern portion, or basin Se ye eee 52-57

3. Coosa (Appalachian) valley region__-.-__-__~- 58-63

ASSIS tie BRAG (ekees Wee ot Ss Ee ee 64-66

Hee eedimontemeriOneae = sae k eo Se eee ee 67-71

AGUS Lp ey aT eee eer ee a ne eee ee Se 72-128

Go Genctralpine,sbelt-2 23-5 ee. Cee 2 Tae se 72-84

Ay onert-leat pine, belt seu. eo PTs 72-77
Batong-leat- pine @hiliSes so ee eee ee 78-81

Cr Biantaw-> pelts 3 a ne 2p ge 81-84

7. Black belt (cane-brake or prairie region) _~__-___ 84-91

8. Chunnennuggee Ridge or blue marl region______ 91-94

Omir ost moaksmtlabwo00dsSie-= ese Sar) Cee 95-97

10. Southern red hills (and “mountains”)_________ 97-103

11. Lime hills (white limestone, etc.)___________-_ 103-107

12. Lime-sink region (“Wire-grass’’)____________ 108-113

ia. Southwestern! pinie® hillss!s2 22 2s ete 113-123

14. Mobile delta (estuarine swamps)--___-______ 123-126

ae COaSEaeS tips ee ale ee ae a 126-128
Illustrations (half-tone cuts of forest scenery)--___-_____ 129-184
Barrens of Tennessee valley (figs. 1, 2)_-___.___-_-_______ 131
Tennessee valley proper (figs. 3-8)--___--_____-____- ise}, 11335:
Coalsplateaumregion (fess (9-135) See ae ee ee That fly Ls)
(CoalMbasinmmeresitone (figsi14 ol 5)ee ste. 2 eo 141
Coosa; valley srerion: (figs. lo=18)==s2 2 =: 2 oes eee 148, 145
Bine idee (hiss alo:; 20) eae =e ee 145
Piedmont rerionm(des. 2224) -oua es eee 147, 149
Shore-leat pine) belt (figsa 2-21 == 151
Central long-leaf pine hills (figs. 28-30)--__._----__-__- 153
Seemeaeben, (ies: o1-54) 222 oo SS 155, 157
Postmonks latwoogs: (figwish) S22 ese s2 fae ee 159
Nouumernered hills (figs n36-59) == 222 = a ee ee 159, 161

Pemeeee (he Al). asta ee 163

6 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Linie-sinkssreerony (os. (42) 2 eee ee os See 165
Southwestern pine hills (figs. 43-48)_-_______________ 167-171
Mobile delta Gigs.“49) 50) 2__ Pe See ee 173
Hoast.ecrip (ies. b-53) so =_ oer ee ee See Bre Left 7/
Rorest industricS: 4 22+ 5822-323 eee 179-183
Turpentine (figs) )4-56))2 22" > se eee 179
Miscellaneous “(igs., (5W=60))- 2 22. eee 181
Lumber (figs. 61-63) 2-2 183
Appendix A. Graphic representation of environmental fac-

OE Se ene RN te eS PI 185-187
Appendix &, Climatological 7 Statistics-— 22 ee 188
mppendix Cy fist of Alabania trees- 2) =o." se ee 189-191
Appendix D. Statistics illustrating present. aap lea of the

forests, rate of exploitation, etc., by regions___________ 193-196
Appendix E. Statistics of Alabama forest products.______ 197-206

Dressed and manufactured lumber_____----_--_-___-- 197-199
Rough: lomber;: ete... 22 Gane Senay -bdeenn wa Ea 199-200
Miscellaneous rough sawmill products_____---__-----_- 201
Naval sstoresi eo: Brie sts seems © SOA BY 3 =. as 202-204
Timber-camp. productsi2e 22 sarees oreat - ad Se 201-202
Conclusions set 1. aie a. oon, FIG RIG ee 8 OS 204-206
rithm het = eee ape tA ee tee ee eee eee ee es eee 207-222
Supplement
Geolocical’ Survey corps lols 2 ee ee 223

Previous publication of the “Survey——_ =. 2. 225-228

ERRATA.

Several typographical errors and a few omissions were over-
looked in reading the proof, but the following are probably the
only ones likely to mislead an intelligent reader.

Page 69, line 41, for cliffs read bluffs.
Page 97, line 4, for operation read proportion.
Page 113, add to list of references:—Schwarz (5, 10, 11).

Page 127. The third and fourth lines of the list of trees are
partly transposed. They should read as follows:

Pinus clausa Sheltered dunes
Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Bay shores mostly

On page 205 it should have been stated parenthetically or in a
footnote, as an illustration of how the forests of distant regions
are drawn upon to relieve the scarcity of timber in this part of the
world, that even now shingles from the Pacific coast states are
used in large quantities in Alabama and other eastern states.

Page 26, lines 24 and 25, for seedlings read pine seeds.
Page 168, second line of title, for west read east.

Page 189. Strike out second line of Appendix C and substitute

the following:

foregoing pages, with a few unimportant exceptions, and is be-

lieved to be essentially complete for the.

(7)

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION.

LABAMA has probably been more thoroughly ex-

plored by various kinds of scientists than has any
other southern state, and there is not very much to be
said about its forests now that has not been said before,
in one way or another. The present report differs some-
what from previous descriptions, however, in the way in
which the geographical divisions of the state are classi-
fied and the descriptions of them arranged; and the
quantitative analyses of the forests of each division,
based on several thousand pages of field notes (repre-
senting about 200 locality-records for each species of
tree, on the average), are entirely new, as are all but two
of the illustrations.

Among the numerous publications dealing with the
geography or the forests of Alabama it will perhaps be
sufficient for the purposes of most persons who use this
report if only a few of the more important or accessible
ones are cited. Some of these, however, contain refer-
ences to many additional works of similar nature which
can be obtained without much trouble by any one who is
sufficiently interested to go into the matter more
deeply or scientifically. For the benefit of such persons
there are included in the following list the titles of a
few publications which, although they contain valuable
information about certain parts of Alabama, are so lit-
tle known or else so recent that they have not been men-
tioned in many bibliographies, particularly in the volum-
inous “Bibliography of Alabama” by Dr. Thomas M.
Owen (who is now at the head of the State Department
of Archives and History), published in 1898 in the an-
nual report of the American Historical Association for
1897, pages 777-1248; and in the bibliographies of North
American geological literature published every few
years by the U. S. Geological Survey. (Bulletin 127 of
that Survey, dated 1896, covers the period from 1731 to
1891, and there are several later ones for shorter subse-
quent periods.)

(9)

10 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

In the following list the names of authors are ar-
ranged alphabetically, and the writings of each chro-
nologically.

Ball, (Rev.) T. H.—A glance into the great southeast, or Clarke

County, Alabama, and its surroundings from 1840 to 1877.
782 pp. Grove Hill, 1882.

(Title-page and map missing in our copy. Title supplied
by State Department of Archives and History.)

Mainly historical and biographical, but contains much in-
teresting geographical information, especially on pages
120-130, 687-660, etc.

Bartram, William.—Travels through North & South Carolina,
Georgia, East & West Florida, the Cherokee country, the
extensive territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confed-
eracy, and the country of the Chactaws; containing an ac-
count of the soil and natural productions of those regions,
together with observations on the manners of the Indians.
522 pp. and a few plates. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1791. (Soon
afterwards reprinted in London and Dublin, and also trans-
lated into French and German.)

The portion devoted to Alabama (which was then a part
of Georgia) begins on page 388 and ends on page 457, but
is not continuous. The author’s route seems to have passed
near the present sites of Fort Mitchell, Tuskegee, Montgom-
ery and Mobile, both going and returning.

Berney, Saffold—1. Hand Book of Alabama: a complete index to
the state; with a geological map, and an appendix of use-
ful tables. xxxix + 3838 pp. Mobile, 1878.
Contains valuable chapters on geology by Dr. Eugene A.
Smith, on soils by Dr. W. C. Stubbs, and on forests, grasses,
etc. by Dr. Charles Mohr.
2. (Second edition of same.) 565 pp. Birmingham, 1893.
The chapter on forests in this edition is shorter than in
the first, and not credited to any one.

Brumby, (Prof.) R. T.—Mineral resources of Alabama—mineral
waters, &c. In F. A. P. Barnard’s Alabama State Almanac
for the year 1839, pp. 65-80. 12mo. Tuscaloosa, (18387).
A very rare work, apparently not correctly cited in any
previous bibliography. (Copy in Survey library presented

by Dr. Smith.)

Caldwell, G. W.—(‘‘Caldwell the Woodsman’’)—The story of the
southern evergreens. Country Life in America 17:171-176.
(Illustrated by half-tones.) Dec. 1904. Also issued in
pamphlet form, with some of the illustrations different.

Describes the beginning of the evergreen decoration in-
dustry in Conecuh County in 1888, and its development
since that time.

Earle, F. S.—The flora of the metamorphic region of Alabama.
Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119. 80 pp. Auburn, 1902.
Includes also a small portion of the coastal plain, about
as much of it as extends into Lee County.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 11

Foster, J. H. (of U. S. Forest Service.)—Alabama forestry. Wil-
kinson’s Handbook of Alabama (State Agric. Dept. Bull. 27),
pp. 63-68. 1909.

Gosse, P. H.—Letters from Alabama (U. S.), chiefly relating to
natural history. (Illust.) 306 pp. 16mo. London, 1859.
Deals mostly with Dallas County, and the Alabama River
between there and Mobile.

Hale, C. S.—Geology of southern Alabama. Am. Jour. Sci. 56:
354-363. 1848.

Harbison, .T. G.—A sketch of the Sand Mountain flora. Biltmore
Botanical Studies, pp. 151-157. 1902.

Harper, R. M.—1. A December ramble in Tuscaloosa County, Ala-
bama. Plant World 9:102, 104-107. 1906.
Deals with the vegetation along the cliffs of the Warrior
River.

2.Some more coastal plain plants in the Paleozoic region of
Alabama. Torreya 6:111-117. 1906.
Refers to Sand and Lookout Mountains in DeKalb County
and the barrens of Limestone County.

3. Notes on the distribution of some Alabama plants. Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 33:523-536. 1906.

4.The vegetation of Bald Knob, Elmore County, Alabama.
Plant World 9:265-269, fig. 44. 1907.

5. (Centers of distribution of coastal plain plants.) Torreya
7:42-45. Science 11.25:539-541. 1907.
Contains a few notes on plants of the short-leaf pine belt
in northwestern Alabama.

6. A botanical and geological trip on the Warrior and Tombig-
bee Rivers in the coastal plain of Alabama. Bull. Torrey
Boteelub: sis107=126, figs. 1, 2 1910.

(A popular account of the same trip, with one half-tone
illustration, appeared in Forest and Stream for June 17 and
2A 1991:)

7. A few more pioneer plants found in the metamorphic region

of Alabama and Georgia. Torreya 10:217-222, fig. 1. 1910.

Contains some notes on the vegetation of the eastern
slopes of the Blue Ridge in Clay County.

8. The forest regions of Alabama. Some statistics illustrating
[the] present condition of [the] lumber industry in each
division. Southern Lumberman (Nashville, Tenn.), vol. 69,
no. 915, pp. 31-32. April 5, 1913. Also reprinted as a 4-
page quarto pamphlet.

Harris, J. T., and Maxwell, H.—The wood-using industries of Ala-
bama. Lumber Trade Journal (New Orleans), vol. 61, No.
9, pp. 19-30. May 1, 1912.
Contains valuable statistics which have been made use of
herein, but several of the trees are erroneously identified.

Lyell, (Sir) Charles.—A second visit to the United States of North
America. 16mo. 2 vols. New York and London, 1849.
Valuable geographical notes on Alabama in vol. 2, about
pp. 37-77.

2

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

McCalley, Henry.—1. Alabama north of the Tennessee River. Rep.

Geol. Surv. Ala. 1879-1880, pp. 67-154. 1881.
Notes on forests on pages 73-74, 86, 139-140, etc.

.On the Warrior coal field. 571 pp. (Geol. Surv. Ala.) 1886.
. Report on the Coal Measures of the plateau region of Ala-

bama. (Including a report on the Coal Measures of Blount
County by A. M. Gibson.) 238 pp. (Geol. Surv. Ala.) 1891.

. Report on the valley regions of Alabama (Paleozoic strata).

Part I, The Tennessee valley region. xvii + 436 pp., 4 figs.,
9 plates. (Geol. Surv. Ala.) 1896.

. (Same), Part II. The Coosa valley region. xxii + 862 pp.,

14 figs., 25 plates. 1897.

All these reports of McCalley’s contain abundant notes
on the trees characterizing the various geological forma-
tions.

McGuire, W. W.—On the prairies of Alabama. Am. Jour. Sci. 26:

93-98 1834.

Mohr, Charles.—1. The forests of Alabama and their products.

2.

Berney’s Handbook (cited above), pp. 221-235. 1878.

List of trees and shrubs characteristic of each region of the
state. Rep. Geol. Surv. Ala. 1881-1882, pp. 291-297. 1883.
(See Smith No. 7, below, for full title of this volume.)

The same list appears also in Tenth Census U. S. 6:67-69.
1884 (7).

. (Notes on the forests of Alabama.) Tenth Census U. S.

9:525-530. 1884.

.The mountain flora of Alabama. Garden & Forest 5:507-

508. Oct. 26, 1892.

. The timber pines of the southern United States. (Together

with a discussion of the structure of their wood, by Filibert
Roth.) U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Div. Forestry, Bull. 13. 160
pp., 27 plates. 4to. 1896.

. (Revised edition of same Bulletin 18, with additional notes

by Dr. Roth.) 176 pp., otherwise similar. 1897.

. Report on the forests of Sand Mountain. The Forester 4:

211-215. Oct. 1898.

.Plant Life of Alabama. An account of the distribution,

modes of association, and adaptations of the flora of Ala-
bama, together with a systematic catalogue of the plants
growing in the state. Contributions from the U. S. Na-
tional Herbarium, vol. 6. 921 pp., 13 plates. July 31, 1901.

Also issued by the Geological Survey of Alabama, with
the addition of a biographical sketch of the author (by Dr.
E. A. Smith) and portraits of him and Judge T. M. Peters,
in October, 1901.

Dr. Mohr was the author of about 100 scientific papers,
but the above, especially the last one, contain the essence
of practically all that are of importance to the student of
Alabama forestry. His magnum opus, the Plant Life of
Alabama, is doubtless the best description yet published of
the vegetation of any whole state or similar area. Unfor-

SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 18

tunately it was not published until after his death, and it
seems to have undergone considerable editing in Washing-
ton, so that it may not represent his views exactly.
Numerous other titles by Dr. Mohr can be found in Owen’s
Bibliography of Alabama, referred to on a preceding page.

Reed, F. W.—A working plan for forest lands in central Alabama.
U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Forest Service, Bull. 68. 71 pp.,
4 plates, 2 maps. 1905.

Comprises excellent descriptions of two large tracts of
long-leaf pine timber belonging to the same company; one
in the foot-hills of the Blue Ridge in Coosa County, and the
oe in the central pine belt, chiefly in Bibb and Hale

ounties.

Schwarz, G. F.—The long-leaf pine in virgin forest. 16mo, xii +
135 pp., 283 full-page half-tone figures in text, colored map,
and 2 folded diagrams. New York (May), 1907.
Based partly on studies made in Baldwin Co., Ala. Con-
fins valuable notes on the effects of fire, among other
things.

Smith, Eugene A.—1. Geological Survey of Alabama. Report of
progress for 1874. 139 pp. 1875.
Describes the Blue Ridge and Piedmont regions, with oc-
casional notes on vegetation.

2. (Same for 1875.) 220 pp. 1876.
Chiefly devoted to the Coosa valley region, in Bibb, Shel-
by, Talladega and Calhoun Counties.

3. (Same for 1876.) 100 pp. 1876.
Describes Roup’s and Jones’s Valleys and the Coosa coal
field.

4.(Same for 1877 and 1878.) 139 pp., 4 colored geological
maps of single counties. 1879.
Describes the Tennessee valley region and the western
parts of the coal region, treating several counties in consid-
erable detail.

5. (Same for 1879 and 1880.) 158 pp., 2 maps. 1881.
Includes description of part of the Warrior coal field, and
McCalley’s report on the northern tier of counties. (See
McCalley 1, above.)

6. Report on the cotton production of the state of Alabama,
with a discussion of the general agricultural features of the
state. Tenth Census U. S. 6:3-173, 2 colored maps. “1884.”
(Some copies must have been in circulation as early as
1883, for there is internal evidence that this was printed be-
fore No. 7.)

A remarkably complete geographical description of the
state, by natural divisions and by counties, with many soil
analyses, and two special chapters on cotton production.
More accessible than the next, having been published in a
much larger edition, but a little inconvenient to refer to on
account of its quarto size and double system of page-num-
bers. (The page-numbers of this work cited in the several

14

Stelle,

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

regional descriptions beyond are those at the bottoms of the
pages, which are the fundamental ones, the more conspicu-
ous ones at the tops belonging only to this one report and
not to the whole volume.)

. Geological Survey of Alabama. Report for the years 1881

and 1882, embracing an account of the agricultural features
of the state. xvi + 615 pp., 8 colored maps. 1883.

Pages 1-154 comprise a general treatise on soils, while
the remainder of the book, exclusive of the six climatolog-
ical maps and the very full (58 page) index, is essentially
the same as No. 6. Unfortunately this has long been out
of print.

. (With the assistance of L. C. Johnson, D. W. Langdon, Jr.,

and others.) Report on the geology of the coastal plain of
Alabama. xxiv + 759 pp., 29 plates. (Geol. Surv. Ala.)
1894.

. The underground water resources of Alabama. xvi + 388

pp., 30 plates. (Geol. Surv. Ala.) 1907.

Of Dr. Smith’s very numerous contributions to the knowl-
edge of Alabama geology and geography, the foregoing
seem to be the principal ones that contain descriptions of
forests. Many additional titles can be found in Owen’s
Bibliography of Alabama, and in U. S. Geological Survey
Bulletins 127, 188, 301 and 372.

(Prof.) J. P. (agricultural editor, Mobile Register)—An
outline expose of the geological, agricultvral, hygienic and
other interesting characteristics of Mobile County, Ala-
bama; embracing surface configuration with area, geolog-
ical formations with useful materials, timber with other
valuable growths, soils, agricultural capabilities and hy-
gienic peculiarities. 8vo. 26 pp. Mobile, 1888.

This is one of the most complete and impartial county
descriptions ever published, in Alabama or anywhere else.

Tuomey, M.—1. First biennial report on the geology of Alabama.

2.

xXxxii + 176 pp. Tuscaloosa, 1850.

Second biennial report on the geology of Alabama. (Edited
after the author’s death by Dr. J. W. Mallet.) xix + 292
pp. and colored geological map. Montgomery, 1858. (Pages
243-252, on the Cretaceous and Tertiary, are by E. Q.
Thornton.)

. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Scils.—Soil surveys

of various Alabama counties.

About half the counties in the state have been surveyed
by this organization since 1902, after the first few years in
co-operation with the state agricultural department. The
resulting maps are useful, and some of the accompanying
geographical descriptions are very good; but in the major-
ity of cases the authors were not sufficiently familiar with
previous literature on the same regions and with the local
geography, geology and botany, a condition which has
caused serious errors in their reports.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 15

Webb, (Dr.) R. D.—The relation of geological formations and of

_ soils to malarial fevers, as exemplified in Sumter County,

Alabama. Trans. Med. Assoc. Ala. 34:285-306. 2 folded
colored maps. 1881.

Wilkinson, J. A. (compiler)—[Handbook of] Alabama. State
Dept. Agriculture and Industries, Bull. 27. 388 pp., includ-
ing numerous unnumbered full-page half-tone illustrations.
1909.

A compilation of miscellaneous information about the
state, without maps, table of contents, or index. At pages
254 and 358 articles commending the work of the U. S. Bu-
reau of Soils are appended to chapters contributed by Dr.
Smith in such a way as to give a false appearance of havy-
ing been written by him.

Winchell, A.—Notes on the geology of middle and southern Ala-
bama. Proc. A. A. A. S. 10 (part 2): 82-93. 1857.
On pages 87-88 the author has some notes on the vegeta-
tion of the Buhrstone region, and comments on the abun-
dance of evergreens.

For assistance in the preparation of this report, or for
their sympathetic interest in it, the writer is especially
indebted to Hon. R. E. Pettus of Huntsville, Col. S. W.
John of Birmingham (now of Dallas County), Mr.
Joshua Franklin of Erin, Clay Co., Mr. Daniel Pratt of
Prattville, Mr. J. A. Avant of Gadsden, and Mr. A. L.
Barker of the University of Alabama. Many students of
the University, some of whom will doubtless be heard
from often in later years, have contributed valua-.
ble information about the forests and forest products of
their home counties.

It would obviously be impossible to give a reasonably
complete description of forest conditions in Alabama
without spending many years in exploring the state, and
publishing a large volume on the subject; and further-
more, some regions have necessarily been visited more
recently than others, a circumstance which naturally
tends to make some difference in the freshness of the
descriptions. Hence it is hoped that persons who may
find their own neighborhoods inadequately or inaccu-
rately described in this brief report will bear these facts
in mind when pointing out its shortcomings. Additions
and corrections of any kind will always be gratefully
received.

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION

LABAMA is such a diversified state that it would
be impracticable to treat it as a unit in describing
its forests. It is desirable therefore to subdivide the
area into a number of forest regions, each of which shall
be as distinct and nearly homogeneous as possible. As
a matter of expediency the subdivisions should not be
very numerous, for that would make some of them too
small to be shown satisfactorily on a map of convenient
size, and require too much repetition in describing them
all. In the present report fifteen main divisions are rec-
ognized, and some of them subdivided into two or three.
It is a fact so well known as not to need any demon-
stration that differences in type of forests (or other veg-
etation), excepting of course differences produced artifi-
clally, are nearly always correlated with differences in
climate, moisture, soil, or other environmental factors.
Hence it is customary in subdividing any area geograph-
ically to base the classification of subdivisions on envi-
ronmental factors which can be measured or mapped
more precisely than can the forest types themselves. But
it is not always easy to decide just which factors are
most significant in this connection.

Obviously factors which change somewhat abruptly
along definite lines are better adapted for the purposes
of geographical classification than are those which vary
more gradually and uniformly from place to place; so
that the ideal system is one in which the boundary be-
tween any two adjoining regions corresponds with a com-
paratively sudden change in one or more environmental
factors.

Among the factors influencing tree growth in a state
of nature are light, heat, density of the air; amount,
composition and fluctuations of water; texture and com-
position of soil; frequency of fire; character and amount
of subterranean life (bacteria, fungi, worms, insects,

2G (17)

18 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

etc.) ; friends and enemies in the animal kingdom, and
competition of other plants of the same or different
species; as well as some characters of the trees them-
selves, such as the history of their migrations, and their
adaptations for dissemination.

We can readily believe that if the force of gravitation
or the composition of the atmosphere varied much in
different parts of the world these variations would give
rise to important differences in vegetation; but as it is,
these factors are so uniform over the whole earth that
they have no appreciable geographical significance.
Terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, radioac-
tivity, and the movements of the moon and other celes-
tial bodies may have some influence on vegetation, but
these influences are as yet unknown, so that we need not
consider them further at present.

Geological history is doubtless a very important geo-
graphical factor, but we do not yet know enough about
its details to separate its effects satisfactorily from
those of present environment. The density of the air,
which varies with altitude, probably affects plants some-
what (as it certainly does animals), but such effects, if
any, are obscured by corresponding altitudinal varia-
tions in light, temperature, and atmospheric humidity,
whose effects are much better known, for they can be
more easily isolated by experimental control. Altitude,
although very easy to measure and map with accuracy,
hardly needs to be taken into consideration in Alabama,
for within our limits there is about as much difference of
average annual temperature due to latitude (with a
range of nearly five degrees) as to altitude, with a range
of only 2,400 feet. And nearly all the trees growing
on the highest mountains of Alabama can be found
flourishing at much lower altitudes in the immediate
vicinity or even considerably farther south.

Temperature is a very important factor in differen-
tiating the vegetation of tropical, temperate and arctic
regions, and the great differences betwen the vegetation
of humid and arid regions can safely be ascribed mainly
to differences in the yearly amount of precipitation; but
within the limits of a single state like ours neither of

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 19

these climatic factors varies enough from one place to
another to overshadow the more obvious effects of soil,
ground-water, etc. (The differences between the vege-
tation of the northeastern and southwestern parts of the
state are indeed doubtless due in part te temprature, but
there are no differences in vegetation in Alabama that
can be reasonably ascribed to differences in average an-
nual rainfall.

Worse still, climatic factors, except in a few special
localities like the summits of high mountain ranges, vary
gradually from place to place, so that the location of lines
based on any one of their numerous functions, such as
average, maximum and minimum temperature, length of
growing season or period between frosts, and seasonal
variations of rainfall, is in general whollv arbitrary, and
likely to be influenced largely by the scale used (whether
Fahrenheit or Centigrade in the case of temperature, or
inches or millimeters in the case of rainfall) .*

Almost equally worthless for our purposes are those
environmental factors which vary greatly in short dis-
tances, such as light (governed by slope of ground, den-
sity of forests, etc.), evaporation (governed largely by
the same factors), and soil moisture (governed largely
by topography). Such factors are very useful for dis-
tinguishing local forest types, such as swamps, ham-

*But for the difficulty mentioned in this paragraph it might be
worth while to give some consideration to the seasonal distribu-
tion of rainfall, which varies perceptibly in different parts of our
state. This is well illustrated by the three rain maps between
pages 176 and 177 of Dr. Smith’s report on the agricultural feat-
ures of Alabama (Smith 7 in bibliography). The lines on the last
map, showing annual rainfall, do not correspond very closely with
the known distribution of any trees (or anything else, appar-
ently), but the other two maps show that there is a general corre-
spondence between hardwood forests and regions of heavy winter
rains (December to February), and between the principal long-leaf
pine area and heavy summer rains (June to August). But the
distribution of forest types can be correlated much more staisfac-
torily with soil, which seems to be much more closely connected
with geology than with climate; and it is possible that the rela-
tive proportion of pines and hardwoods in the forests has some
influence itself on the seasonal distribution of rainfall, whose
irregular distribution on the map would be difficult to account for
otherwise. (In this connection see footnotes by the writer in Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 37:415-416. 1910; Torreya 12:146. 1912.)

20 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

mocks, and pine woods, within a region, but not for de-
limiting regions large enough to show on a state map.

Another difficulty that is unavoidable in the use for
geographical purposes of any one simple factor, such as
altitude, or any function of temperature or rainfall, that
can vary in only one direction (i. e., from greater to less,
or vice versa), is that all zones based on single factors
must be parallel, so that each one can touch only two
others, as is well illustrated by a hypsometric or climatic
map on which the various altitudinal or temperature
zones are shaded differently. It is indeed true that in
some restricted areas the various types of forest are dis-
tributed to some extent in parallel zones; but if any one
of these zones is followed far enough it will as a rule be
found to narrow down and disappear, or run up against
some other zone (there are several examples of both
cases on the map of Alabama accompanying this report) ;
which can never happen with climatic or altitudinal
zones. There are also many forest regions that are about
as broad as they are long; so that a true map of forests
(or any other kind of vegetation) would look something
like a mosaic, or a crazy-quilt.

Topography and soil are not open to the objection just
mentioned, for they are complex features, and may vary
in an indefinite number of ways. ‘Topography however
does not affect vegetation directly as much as it does in-
directly through its influence on the local distribution of
soil types, ground-water, and sunlight. Soil is almost
universally admitted to be of fundamental importance
to vegetation, and soils are comparatively easy to map—
after a satisfactory classification for them is devised*—,
for the several types are usually distributed in fairly
well-defined patches.

The smaller soil units are too small and too numerous
for our present purposes, but it is possible to group them
roughly according to certain characters into classes or
regions, each large enough to be shown on a state map.

*For a recent discussion of the problems of soil classification
see EK. O. Fippin, Science I1.35:677-686, May 3, 1912. Also Bulle-
tin 85 of the U. S. Bureau of Soils, by G .N. Coffey. November,
OZ:

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 21

In a featureless plain it might be difficult to decide
where to draw the line between different classes of soils,
but topographic diversity facilitates matters considera-
bly by affording distinctions between wet and dry soils,
ridge and valley soils, residual and colluvial soils, ete.

Although the geological age of a rock may have little
direct influence on the vegetation growing above it, soil
and topography are so intimately connected with geology
that a geological map is of fundamental importance to
the student of forest geography, in some parts of the
world at least.*

The correlations between geology, topography, soils
and vegetation, although not very evident in some
of the colder and hotter parts of the world, are
perhaps nowhere more clearly exhibited than in Ala-
bama; and the map accompanying this report does not
differ conspicuously from a geological map of the same
size.

In the northeastern quarter of the state the chief dif-
ferences are due to the fact that in some of the valleys
several different Paleozoic formations crop out in a suc-
cession of long narrow belts which cannot be shown on
such a small map as this. And furthermore, while it is
possible to map the outcrops of formations where they
are only a few yards wide—if a sufficiently large scale
be used—, the soils are often less diversified than the un-
derlying rocks, or mixed (especially on steep slopes),
topography cannot be studied to advantage in an area of
less than several hundred acres, and it has not been
found practicable to have geographical divisions, of the
rank here considered, less than a few miles wide, or too
discontinuous, either. In the valley regions therefore
the various geological formations, though often very dis-
tinct, are regarded as indicating local forest types rather
than distinct regions.

In the northwestern quarter there is a rather wide
transition zone between the coal region and the central
pine belt, where the unconsolidated strata of the latter

*The diagram in Appendix A will make the relations of all these
environmental factors to each other and to the forests a little
plainer to students and other interested persons.

22 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

cover the uplands while many of the streams have cut
down into the hard rocks of the former, causing an ex-
tensive overlapping, or rather interlocking, of two more
or less distinct kinds of country. On a large map this
interlocking could be shown pretty accurately, but in the
present case the best that can be done is to strike an
average between the two regions as nearly as possible,
by means of a dotted line.

In the southern tier of counties, especially eastward,
the geology has to be partly disregarded for a different
reason. There the strata are nearly level, and at the
same time variable and poor in fossils, and the geolo-
gists themselves are not yet fully agreed upon how they
should be mapped; but it is possible to define geograph-
ical divisions in that quarter pretty well on a basis of
soil, topography and vegetation, without knowing much
about the geology.

The principal sources of information for the present
map, arranged chronologically, are as follows:

1. Agricultural map of Alabama by Dr. Eugene A. Smith, 1883.
(Smith 6 and 7 in bibliography.)

2. Large geological map of Alabama, with explanatory chart,
also by Dr. Smith, 1894. (A smaller edition of this map, first
issued in 1904, resembles the present geographical map in size
and to some extent in the absence of minute details.)

3. Small geographical map by Dr. Smith in J. H. Phillips’s Ala-
bama supplement to Frye’s Complete Geography, 1897. —

4. Map of floral areas, frontispiece of Mohr’s Plant Life of Ala-
bama, 1901. (Mohr 8 in bibliography.)

5. Some of the government soil maps of Alabama counties.

(See U. S. Dept. Agriculture in bibliography.)

6. Field work of the writer, 1905-6, 1908, 1910, 1911, 1912-13,

extending into every county. The principal innovations from this
source are in the southeastern quarter of the state.

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS.

HE description of each natural region into which the
state is here divided follows as nearly as possible
the following plan, the amount of space given to each
head varying with the character of the region.
Location and area. External relations.
References to previous literature.
Geology and soils.
Topography and hydrography.
Climate.
Types of forest. Frequency of fire.

LIST OF TREES.

Percentage of evergreens. Other noteworthy features of

the list.

Economic aspects.

Density of population. Increase in last decade. Percentage
of whites.

Relative area of forests and clearings.

Status of stock laws.

Changes in relative abundance of certain species, from va-
rious causes.

Principal forest products and wood-using industries.

Illustrations.

Location and external relations.—The location of each
region is not described in detail, for that is indicated
with sufficient exactness by the map. As most of the
regions are not confined to Alabama, some account of
their extent outside of the state is appropriate.

References.—In the references to literature the titles
in the foregoing bibliography are not reepated, but only
the author’s name and the number of his paper (if more
than one by that author is listed), and then in parenthe-
ses the numbers of the pages on which the region
under consideration is described, if they are not too
numerous.

The geology and soils, topography and hydrography,
are described very briefly. Full geological details can
be found in several of the reports cited in the bibliogra-
phy.

Climate.—For convenience of reference all the cli-
matic data used herein are collected on a single page,
which follows the regional descriptions. (Appendix B.)

(23)

24 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Statistics from 23 different weather stations, all based
on at least 15 years’ observations, have been compiled
from Bulletin ‘““‘W” of the U. S. Weather Bureau, and
from the annual summary of the Alabama section of
that Bureau for 1911. The data here published include
only the mean annual temperature, the average length
of the growing season (period between the last killing
frost in spring and first killing frost in fall), the aver-
age annual precipitation, and the percentage of the total
annual rainfall that comes in the four warmest months,
June to September inclusive, and in the six warmest
months, May to October, inclusive.

It has already been pointed out (page 19) that some
parts of Alabama are characterized by wet winters and
others by wet summers; and the percentages of rainfall
for the four warmest months seem to bring out the con-
trasts in this respect better than do those for any longer
or shorter period or for any other portion of the year.
The six months percentages are added to facilitate com-
parison of conditions in Alabama with those in the rest
of the United States, as mapped by Dr. Henry Gannett
on Plate 2 of U. S. Geological Survey Water Supply Pa-
per No. 234, published in 1909. That map represents
the percentage of rainfall for “the six warmer months,
April to September, inclusive’; but in Alabama and most
other parts of the eastern United States October is
usually a little warmer than April, and furthermore it is
usually drier than April in the regions that have dry
summers, and wetter than April in the. regions that have
dry winters, so that the figures for May to October give
greater contrasts than those for April to September
would.*

*It is interesting to note that in general where the summers are
wettest the soils are sandiest, and vice versa, in the southeastern
United States at least. Of course the correlation is not absolute,
and there are many areas of clay soil in regions with wet sum-
mers, and of sand in regions with dry summers, for the texture of
the soil depends on many other factors than seasonal distribution
of rainfall, which indeed has hitherto scarcely been recognized as
a factor in the problem at all. To attempt to explain this corre-
lation would be out of place in such a report as this, as it seems
to be a matter of soil chemistry primarily. It is possible, though,
that the relation may be partly reciprocal, or accidental. For ex-
ample, the black belt of Alabama and Mississippi is characterized

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 25

In the regional descriptions all the climatic statistics
are not repeated, but only the salient features pointed
out.

Forest types.—The treatment of forest types is rather
brief and superficial, for an exhaustive discussion of this
feature would require a great deal more space, and would
be of less economic than scientific interest. Abundant
details can be found in Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama,
previously referred to.

Fire.—The frequency of fire is noted under the head
of forest types, for it varies greatly in different kinds of
forests, as well as in different regions. In general the
effect of fire in a forest is to keep down underbrush and
trees with thin bark or low branches, and thus favor the
growth of trees with thick bark and clear trunks, such
as most of the pines.* It also returns quickly to the soil
the potash and other mineral substances accumulated in
fallen leaves, but drives off the organic matter, which
would otherwise make the soil more nitrogenous. It
may also destroy some insects which would otherwise
injure the trees. Most persons who have written about
forest fires, especially in the northern states, where
such fires are often much more spectacular and awe-in-
spiring than they are with us, seem to regard them as
an unmitigated evil, or as regrettable accidents, to be
prevented by all possible means. In reality, however,
fire is a part of Nature’s program in this part of the
world, and the woods were undoubtedly set on fire by
lightning and perhaps other natural causes long before
man appeared on the earth. The frequency of forest
fires varies greatly in different regions, and in general
they are most frequent today in the same regions where
they were most frequent in prehistoric times. Fires are
and always have been rare in hardwood regions with wet
winters and dry summers, like the Tennessee valley and

by wet winters and dry summers, and its soils are decidedly
clayey; but its soil characters are closely correlated with the geo-
logical formation, which is certainly independent of any modern
climatic factors.

*This fact was noted by Sir Charles Lyell in Tuscaloosa
County in the spring of 1846. See page 69 of his book cited in
the bibliography.

26 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

the black belt, where the forest floor is covered with
humus, usually too damp and too thoroughly oxidized to
burn readily.

In the long-leaf pine regions, where environmental
conditions are different in almost every way from those
just mentioned, fire seems to have swept over every spot
not protected by its topography or otherwise every few
years in prehistoric times. There the fire consumes the
herbage that covers the ground, and prevents the growth
of most thin-barked trees, but does very little harm to
the long-leaf pine after that reaches the age of four or
five years. This pine withstands fire better than any
other tree we have, but some of the other pines and a few
of the oaks and hickories are not much inferior to it in
this respect.

It can be safely asserted that there is not and never
has been a long-leaf pine forest in the United States
(and that species does not grow anywhere else)
which did not show evidences of fire, such as
charred bark near the bases of the trees; and fur-
thermore, that if it were possible to prevent forest
fires absolutely the long-leaf pine—our most _ use-
ful tree—would soon become extinct. For where
the herbage has not been burned most of the seeds
42@8 lodge in the grass and fail to germinate, and if the
oaks and other hardwoods were allowed to grow densely
they would prevent the growth of the pine, which can-
not stand much shade, especially when young.

At the present time most of the fires in the pine
woods are set purposely, to burn off the dead grass and
improve the grazing. This practice has been repeatedly
denounced by persons who have spent most of their lives
outside of the long-leaf pine regions, but really the only
just criticism of it that can be made is that it is done too
often; oftener than Nature intended, one might say.
However, as the number of roads, railroads, clearings,
etc., increases, the area over which each fire can spread
becomes more and more restricted, so that the frequency
of fire at any one point may not be much greater now
than it was originally.

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 27

The mixed pine and oak woods which constitute a very
large proportion of the forests of Alabama and other
southeastern states occupy an intermediate position be-
tween the rich shady hardwood forests and the open
long-leaf pine forests with respect to fire. In these
woods fire often consumes the dry leaves in late fall,
and even though it does little harm to the trees it tends
to impoverish the soil by driving off the nitrogen and
other organic matter contained in the leaves, so that it
does not seem to be good policy to set fire to such forests
purposely, at least where the land is likely to be used for
cultivation at some future time.

Lists of trees.—The lists of trees for each region have
been prepared with considerable care, and are probably
not far from complete in most cases, for all but the rar-
est species. The species are arranged in the same order
in each list, beginning with the pines and ending with
those trees which are generally regarded by botanists as
most highly organized. This method does not bring out
the contrasts between the different regions quite as
plainly as it would to arrange the species in order of
abundance, but it is more convenient for finding quickly
in any list the name of any particular tree.

Each line in these lists begins with two numbers. The
first represents the proportion of the area of the original
forests of each region supposed to have been occupied by
each species, and the second shows the same thing for
the present forests. These ratios are expressed in per-
centages, and are given only to the nearest unit, so that
all percentages less than 14 are represented by 0. Species
which make up less than one-tenth of one per cent of the
forests of any region are usually omitted, as having lit-
tle significance. The first figure is more or less of a
rough estimate, while the second is derived from my
field-notes by a rather complex and laborious method,
which need not be explained here. Great accuracy can-
not be claimed for these figures, but they are much bet-
ter than what we have had before (viz., none at all), and
perhaps none of them will prove to be more than double
or less than half the correct figures which may be ulti-
mately obtained. There are of course more precise

28 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

methods of estimating timber than that here employed,
but to apply these over a whole state in sufficient detail
to get better results than those presented here would
take one person many years.

Where the second figure is larger than the first it does
not necessarily mean that that species is more abundant
now than it was originally. Those species whic have in-
creased in abundance relatively are either those wihch
tend to spread in clearings, those which are confined to
soils not well adapted for agriculture, or those which
have simply been left standing while more desirable spe-
cies have been cut out from among them. On the con-
trary, therefore, the trees which have decreased in abun-
dance usually prefer the better soils, or are more valua-
ble for lumber, or both. To get an estimate of the pres-
ent stand of any species in any region the percentage of
present abundance should always be multiplied by the
estimated percentage of remaining forest in that region,
which is given after the list of trees.

Where the whole technical name is printed in bold-face
type it means that the species is evergreen, and where
only the specific name (second word) is in bold-face the
species is partly evergreen.

For each species both technical and common names are
given, except in the case of a few trees which are so lit-
tle known to the general public that they seem to have
no bona-fide common names. Only common names that
are actually used by a large number of people in this
state are considered. The names applied to our trees in
northern books are not always the same as those used
in these parts, some of them being mere translations of
the technical names, and therefore obviously not genu-
ine, and not deserving of perpetuation.

After the name of each tree its usual habitat in the
region is indicated in two or three words.

The percentage of evergreens, which is obtained by
simply adding together the percentage-numbers of those
species that are evergreen, throws an interesting light
on the character of the forests of the several regions. In
general a large percentage of evergreens seems to be
correlated with small seasonal fluctuations of ground-

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 29

water, wet summers, streams comparatively free from
mud, and sandy soils poor in potassium, if not in other
elements of fertility. Just which of these factors are
fundamental and which are secondary is not at present
obvious.

Economic aspects.—In taking stock of our forest re-
sources it is of course of the utmost importance to de-
termine not only the composition of the forests but also
the amount of forest still standing. No recent statistics
on the latter point for areas smaller than the whole
state, and taking into consideration both cultivated and
abandoned fields, are available, so that only rough esti-
mates can be given. But the amount of cleared land is
pretty closely correlated with density of population, and
that is known with considerable accuracy. The figures
for the population of each region have been deduced
from the reports of the 13th Census of the United
States, and ought to be reasonably accurate. The chief
difficulty here is due to the fact that the census figures
are given for counties and other civil divisions, which
do not correspond very closely with natural divisions.
The best that can be done in the absence of maps show-
ing beats is to combine the areas and populations of all
counties wholly or mainly included in a given region, and
make the computations accordingly.

It is a very obvious fact, though not often mentioned,
that in a state as thickly settled as Alabama our friend
the farmer has done more damage to the forests than
all other agencies combined, for his operations involve a
total destruction of the forest in the areas he cultivates.
A great deal of this destruction is of course unavoidable;
but if the farmers could be taught to cultivate more in-
tensively and use less wasteful methods a much larger
area could be kept forested.

The conservationists are inclined to blame the lumber-
man most for the rapid exhaustion of the forests which
our generation is witnessing. Dr. J. B. Killebrew, in an
address delivered at the Tennessee Centennial Exposi-
tion in 1897, spoke of lumbering practices in that state in
the following vigorous language: ‘“‘Our present destruc-
tive methods combine the stupidity of unthinking bar-

80 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

barism and the cupidity of unprincipled selfishness with
the wantonness of unbridled license.” The same could
be applied with equal justice to almost any state in the
Union; and the lumberman certainly deserves some
censure.

And yet if it were possible for us all to live on fish,
game, wild fruits, etc., or on food manufactured from
the atmosphere, without cultivating the soil, Alabama
could come pretty near supplying the whole South with
timber. Thirty years or more ago it was confidently
predicted by conservative scientists that the pine forests
of West Florida and adjacent Alabama would be exhaust-
ed in a very few years; but there are still immense areas
of virgin timber in that section, simply because the soil
is not very rich, and the population is still so sparse that
if every able-bodied inhabitant should engage in lumber-
ing they could hardly keep the trees cut down. Vast
forests are still standing in Maine, Minnesota, Canada,
etc., not because their resources are unknown or of little
value, but because the soil and climate of those regions
are not favorable to agriculture.*

Steck laws.—The ranging of domestic animals in the
forests, where it is still permitted, has an important in-
fluence, tending to retard the growth of underbrush and
of some trees and probably favoring others, somewhat
as fire does. Like fire, grazing returns mineral plant
foods quickly to the soil, but unlike fire, it also returns
nitrogen, probably with interest. Every county and beat
in the state decides for itself whether stock shall be al-
lowed to run at large within its borders or not; and these
local laws do not seem to be codified, so that it would be
impossible to ascertain their exact status throughout the
state at the present time without a great deal of corre-
spondence with county officials. In general, however, in
regions where there is still considerably more forest than
farm land the cattle, sheep, hogs, etc., are allowed free

*An interesting paper by Hu Maxwell on the timber resources
of the South, on pages 41 and 42 of “The South the nation’s great-
est asset’”—which is part 2 of the Manufacturers’ Record for
March 27, 1913 (vol. 63, no. 12)—brings out stiJl more clearly the
fact that the exhaustion of our forests is not as imminent as some
have predicted.

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 31

range on any unenclosed land, and farmers have to pro-
tect their crops and yards from them by fences. Where
farms are in the majority the stock law or ‘“no-fence
law” prevails, the stock being kept within enclosures and
the fields therefore not requiring fences.*

In each regional description the present status of the
stock law, as determined from newspaper items and soil
survey reports, interviews with students and citizens,
and observations made in traveling through thé various
regions, is Summed up in a few words, as accurately as
the information at hand permits.

Forest preducts.—The lists of the principal forest
products of each region are derived from personal ob-
servation, interviews, and examination of available lit-
erature; and the various items in each list are arranged
approximately in order of value of total output. Com-
pleteness of such data is of course out of the question,
but they are probably just about as nearly complete for
one region as for another.

In deciding just what to include under the designation
of forest products only articles made from native trees
and sold, either in local markets or for export, are con-
sidered. This excludes two extremes; first, such articles
as buggies, show-cases, furniture and cotton gins, made
in towns and cities from wood largely imported from
other regions, states or countries; and second, articles
produced strictly for home use, such as the fuel, fence
rails and posts, axe-handles, cotton baskets, etc., which
almost every farmer gets from his own woods. Stove-

*In the last ten years or so, since attention has been drawn to
the importance and feasibility of eradicating the cattle-tick in the
South, some agricultural editors have been urging the substitution
of state-wide stock laws for the present loca] option system, be-
cause tick eradication is much easier where cattle are confined
than it is on open ranges. But a stock law would be unfair to per-
sons of limited means who are raising cattle and hogs in thinly-
settled counties, for it would deprive them of the use of the abun-
dant natural pasturage. It might however be a good idea to have
a state-wide law for a few years (just as certain species of game
are sometimes protected for a few years in certain states), with
the understanding that the present system would be restored after
the extermination of the ticks. It might also be desirable to im-
pose greater restrictions on hogs than on cattle, since the former
seem to be more destructive.

32 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

wood cut by farmers and sold in near-by towns would be
appropriate to include, if any statistics about it were
available, but it is so common and familiar in all regions
where there are any woods at all that it hardly needs to
be considered.

Unfortunately no accurate quantitative estimates of
the forest products of each region can be made from the
information at present available. Some publications of
the U. S. Forest Service and Census Bureau give valuable
statistics for the whole state, which have been utilized
in Appendix E, but they are of no value for regional de-
scriptions, for they do not consider counties or other
geographical subdivisions of the state. The paper of
Harris and Maxwell on the wood-using industries of Ala-
bama, cited in the bibliography, likewise treats the state
as a unit for statistical purposes, but it also contains a
list of over 200 wood-working establishments of higher
rank than sawmills, with the location of each, from
which a rough calculation of the relative number of such
establishments in each region can be made.

Still more useful is a directory of the sawmills and
other wood-working establishments of Alabama, pub-
lished in the latter part of 1912 by the Southern Lum-
berman, a weekly magazine of Nashville, Tenn. This
lists about 600 sawmills and 100 other establishments,
and is probably nearly complete for all mills large enough
to ship their products by rail or water. It gives no sta-
tistics of production, but tells almost everything else
that one might wish to know about our sawmills, includ-
ing the name and location of each, the character of its
equipment (including length of railroad operated, if
any), the kind of stock turned out (i. e., whether ordi-
nary lumber or veneers, crates, cooperage stock, han-
dles, vehicles, furniture, etc.), the daily capacity, and the
kinds of wood used. From this directory it is a simple
matter to count the number of mills sawing each kind
of wood in each region, and compute their average ca-
pacity. In summing up the information derived from
this source in the regional descriptions those kinds of
wood cut by only one mill in a region are usually omitted
for the sake of brevity. With this exception the num-

.

PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 33

ber of mills given for each species of tree is roughly pro-
portional to the percentage of abundance of that tree in
the region.

All these statistics obtained originally from lumber-
men are a little defective for the reason that lumbermen
recognize fewer species of trees than botanists do. Har-
ris and Maxwell report only 38 species from Alabama (in-
cluding a few imported ones), and the Southern Lum-
berman only 34; the two lists together comprising about
40 native species; while as a matter of fact there are at
least 50 native trees in Alabama that are used for lum-
ber.

For example, the long-leaf and slash pines are not
usually distinguished by lumbermen, and the “long-leaf
pine” which some of the mills in the northern tier of
counties claim to cut is probably neither of these. The
“short-leaf pine’ of the trade also includes two and pos-
sibly three species. It seems improbable that any real
white pine, which does not grow within fifty miles of
Alabama, should be brought into the state to be sawed,
but we have two native pines with pretty soft wood, one
in the northern half of the state and one in the southern,
which may be called by that name. <A few of the mills
in the Southern Lumberman’s directory report spruce,
another northern tree, but probably mean spruce pine, a
name which is applied locally to two or three of our
trees.

Our two cypresses are not distinguished in the statis-
tics (for although lumbermen often speak of white,
black, and red cypress, it does not seem possible to cor-
relate these names definitely with botanical species), but
as the pond cypress in Alabama is confined to regions 12
and 13, there is very little uncertainty about the identity
of the cypress reported from other regions.

Harris and Maxwell mention only six oaks (and some
of those probably wrongly identified) and the Southern
Lumberman only two, white and red. The “white oak’
of the trade probably includes some post oak, swamp
chestnut oak, and a few other related species, and the
“red oak” may be almost any of the numerous species
with biennial acorns, bristle-tipped leaves and inferior

3G

84 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

wood, including the water and willow oaks, which are
not listed separately by the Southern Lumberman.

The various hickories, elms, maples, ashes, etc., are
not distinguished in these publications, but lumbermen
could hardly be expected to do that, as their woods are
very similar. The “red gum” of the lumber trade is a
comparatively new name for the old familiar sweet gum,
whose wood was not regarded as having any value un-
til the scarcity of poplar began to be felt. Tupelo gum
is another wood which has come into use very recently,
for a similar reason; and the ‘“‘tupelo” of the trade may
possibly include some of its near relative black gum,
which is not listed separately. Bay, listed by Harris
and Maxwell as “sweet magnolia,” and said by them to
be cut in Alabama at the rate of 148,000 feet a year, is
not mentioned in the Southern Lumberman’s directory,
but may be combined in that with some other wood of
the same family, such as poplar, cucumber or magnolia.

In the interpretation of the statistics of kinds of wood
cut in each region the facts just mentioned need to be
constantly borne in mind.

Illustrations.—All the half-tone figures are from the
writer’s own photographs, except a few taken in former
years by Dr. Smith and other members of the Survey,
all of which are properly credited. Some of the latter
are especially valuable as showing the appearance of vir-
gin pine forests which have since been destroyed.

THE HILL COUNTRY AND COASTAL PLAIN
CONTRASTED.

HE subdivisions of Alabama which are about to be

described fall naturally into two classes. Those
numbered 1 to 5, covering about two-fifths of the area
of the state, constitute the hill country or mineral re-
gion, while the remainder belong to the coastal plain,
which borders the coast from New York to Mexico, and
is poor in minerals, water-power and mountain scenery,
but rich in agricultural and timber resources. The line
between them is called the fall-line, because most of the
rivers which cross it have falls there.

In the hill country of Alabama the rocks are all
Paleozoic and older, except for a few local alluvial depos-
its, etc., and some of them are very much folded and
faulted; while in the coastal plain there are no strata
older than Cretaceous, and they have been very little
disturbed by movements of the earth’s crust ,having in
most places a gentle dip. to the southwestward or away
from the hill country. This difference in geological age
is the fundamental distinction, but there are others
which can be easily made out by persons who are not
geologists. Almost everywhere in the hill country hard
rocks abound and sand is searce; while the reverse is
true over the greater part of the coastal plain (more so
farther east than in Alabama, though). In most parts
of the coastal plain the fossiliferous strata are covered to
a depth of several feet with a layer of loam or sand, or
sometimes both, commonly regarded as of Pliocene age
or later.*

*In the last few years some of the younger geologists have
been asserting that this superficial formation, or most of it at
least, is nothing but the weathered portions of the Cretaceous and
Tertiary strata; but there are many facts that are not consistent
with this hypothesis, and if such a simple explanation was the
correct one it would probably have been proposed long ago, and
universally accepted by this time.
(35)

36 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Of the commoner beneficial mineral ingredients of
soils, lime is perhaps about equally common in both di-
visions, though varying greatly from one subdivision or
region’ to another. The same might be said of phos-
phorus. Nitrogen and potassium are generally less
abundant in the coastal plain soils, except in the “black
belt”’.

On the average the coastal plain is considerably less
elevated and less hilly than the hill country. The latter
ranges from about 200 to 2,400 feet above sea-level, and
the former from sea-level to nearly 1,000 feet. This top-
ographic difference is due partly to the simple fact that
the coastal plain is nearer the coast, but partly also
to the fact that its rocks are younger and have never
become as indurated as some of those in the highlands.
The coastal plain exhibits a great variety of topography,
perhaps more in Alabama and Mississippi than anywhere
else (there being even some small “mountains” near the
boundary between these two states), but on the whole
its topographic forms are what would be called young.
That is to say, most of the streams have not yet carved
out wide valleys, and in the more level portions of the
area there are many swamps and ponds, which erosion
processes are tending slowly but surely (unless other
physiographic processes, such as solution of underlying
limestone, or warping of the earth’s crust, interfere). to
do away with.

As the coastal plain, by reason of its position next to
the coast, has almost certainly been submerged beneath
the sea at a later date than the hill country, its surface
is on the average not weathered so deeply, and the vege-
tation is of a newer, more “pioneer” type. The greater
abundance of evergreens in the coastal plain and scarcity
of potassium in the soil may be partly due either to this
fact, or to the prevalence of summer rains already men-
tioned, or to both.

THE REGIONS IN DETAIL.

THE HILL COUNTRY—(REGIONS 1-5)

1. The Tennessee Valley.

NDER this designation is included all that portion
of the state north or northwest of the plateau of
the coal region (described a little farther on), including
not only the main valley of the Tennessee River but also
several narrower valleys almost surrounded by portions
of the plateau. This region includes quite a number of
rather diverse kinds of country, such as the “barrens”
adjacent to the Tennessee line, the fertile plains border-
ing the Tennessee River, the chert ridges in the western
half, the limestone slopes bordering the plateau, the Lit-
tle Mountains of Morgan, Lawrence and Colbert Coun-
ties, and Brown’s Valley, a direct continuation of the Se-
quatchie Valley of Tennessee, which extends southwest-
ward into Blount County. Of these the barrens will be
described separately, and the rest treated as a unit.
References (for both the Barrens and the Tennessee
valley proper). McCalley 1, McCalley 4, Mohr 3 (528-
529), Mohr 8 (21-22, 80-89), Smith 4 (9-18, 20-58),
Smith 6 (38-44, 69, 109-119), Smith 7 (217-234, 297,
407-433), Smith 9 (10-11, 77-80, 100-107), Tuomey 1
(65-71), Tuomey 2 (1-24, 30-42).

A. The Barrens.
(Figures 1, 2.)

Location, area, and external relations.—This name is
applied locally to a strip of country covering about 800
square miles in the northern edge of Lauderdale, Lime-
stone and Madison Counties. It is a part of the “High-
land Rim” which surrounds the Ordovician (formerly
called Lower Silurian) limestone basin of Middle Tennes-

(37)

38 ' ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

see. Besides certain references in the papers of McCal-
ley and Smith just cited, the following describe the bar-
rens more particularly:—Mohr 8, p. 88, and the gov-
ernment soil surveys of Lauderdale County and the
“Huntsville area”.

Geology and soils.—The geological formation of the
barrens is mainly the Lauderdale or Keokuk chert, of
Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian) age, but the re-
gion under consideration is not quite coextensive with
that formation. In some places, especially toward the
Tennessee line, the larger streams have cut down into the
underlying Ordovician limestones. The strata, as in
most of the country between the Tennessee River and
the Great Lakes, are very nearly horizontal throughout.
The soil of the barrens is grayish to yellowish in color,
more or less loamy in texture, somewhat more siliceous
and much less calcareous than the soils of the Tennessee
valley proper, and considered infertile in comparison
with them, though it is a considerably richer soil than
some in the extreme southern parts of the state which
have become very popular in recent years.

Topography and hydrography.—The surface of the
barrens is level to undulating, with ravines or gorges
along some of the streams which have cut down into the
older rocks as above described. In some of the more
level areas there are shallow ponds, bearing considerable
resemblance in their vegetation and otherwise to those
in some parts of the coastal plain. Streams are moder-
ately well developed.

Climate.—There are no weather stations within this
region, but the figures for Madison and Florence, a little
farther south, show that the average annual temperature
must be about 61°, the length of the growing season
about 200 days, and the annual rainfall about 49 inches,
most of which occurs in the cooler months.

Forest types.—In the more level areas a few feet dif-
ference in elevation makes a considerable difference in
the amount of water in the soil, and consequently in the
vegetation. The drier places have forests of short-leaf
pines (the pines in this region seem to be almost con-
fined to Limestone County, though) and various oaks,

1A. BARRENS. 39

much like those of the post-oak flatwoods region to be
described later (no. 9); and around the ponds the vege-
tation is similar to that of some of the Coosa valley flat-
woods (region no 4). There are also considerable areas
of creek-bottom forests in the more level portions. The
gorges along the larger streams are insignificant in area,
and have not yet been studied by the writer. They doubt-
less contain some species not listed below, but their per-

centages of abundance cannot be very high.
The upland forests are subject to occasional ground-
fires, which however seem to do little damage.

LIST OF TREES.

20-22 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf

pine Various habitats
9-7 Pinus echinata Short-leaf

pine Driest soils
1-1 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar
4-2. Hicoria alba? Hickory Dry soils
1-1 Hicoria ovata? |Scaly-bark

hickory
1-1 Salix nigra Willow Along streams
1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Bottoms
1-1 Ostrya Virginiana Richer soils
0-1 Betula nigra Birch Creek banks, etc.
3-4 Fagus grandifolia Beech Creek bottoms, ete.
5-3 Quercus alba White oak Various habitats
6-5 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry soils
2-2 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest-

nut oak Creek bottoms mostly

12-15 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry soils

3-3 Quercus coccinea iSpanish oak ‘|Dry soils
1-1 Quercus Marylandica /(Black-jack oak!|Dry soils
4-5 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Low grounds
1-1 Ulmus Americana? Elm Creek bottoms, ete.
2-2 Ulmusalata Elm Creek bottoms mostly
6-3 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Various habitats
8-10 Liquidambar Styraciflua|Sweet gum Various habitats
1-2 Platanus occidentalis ‘Sycamore Creek banks, etc.
3-4 Acer rubrum [Red maple Low grounds
1-1 Nyssa sylvatica ‘Black gum Various habitats

Assuming the above figures to be correct, it appears
that about 30% of the trees, comprising only three spe-
cies—two pines and a cedar—are evergreen.

Economic features.—The soil of the barrens is so much
less fertile than that of the Tennessee valley proper im-
mediately to the south, and the limestone basin just

40 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

north, that it has not been in much demand hitherto, and
probably 80% of the area is still wooded. The region is
being settled up pretty rapidly now though, like many
other pine regions in the South. The two pines are
probably as abundant there today as they ever were, if
not more so; but the amount of white and post oak and
hickory must have been considerably diminished to sup-
ply the cooperage plants, wagon factories, and other
hardwood industries along the Tennessee River.

Cattle seem to have free range in this region, or the
greater part of it.

The principal forest products are pine lumber, oak
cross-ties, and staves. The large number of cross-ties
reported as produced in Lauderdale County in 1912 (see
below) must have come partly if not mostly from the
barrens. Many white oak logs are shipped to sawmills
in other regions or states.

B. Tennessee Valley Proper.
(Figures 3-8.)

This embraces an area of about 4,100 square miles in
Alabama, and does not extend very far into any of the
adjoining states, without changing its character consid-
erably. References to literature have been given on
page 37.

Geology and soils.—In a strip a few miles wide along
the southeastern edge of the region, constituting the
Brown’s-Sequatchie Valley anticline, the strata are most-
ly Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian, and much folded
and faulted, just as in the Coosa valley, to be described
later. In the rest of the area the rocks are all Lower
Carboniferous, ranging from Lauderdale chert to Ban-
gor or Mountain limestone, and lie essentially horizon-
tally, as is the case with other Paleozoic strata for many
hundred miles northward from Alabama. Interstratified
with the Bangor limestone south of the Tennessee River
is a sandstone (Hartselle sandstone) varying in thick-
ness from almost nothing to over 300 feet, and closely
resembling the sandstone of the region next to be de-
scribed. Toward the western boundary of the state the

1B. TENNESSEE VALLEY. 41

Paleozoic rocks are overlaid by unconsolidated coastal
plain strata, whose boundaries are not easily defined.
The soils of the valley are various, but red and calcare-
ous clays and loams above the average in fertility pre-
dominate in the central portion, with more limestone out-
crops eastward and cherty soils westward. Sand is
rather scarce.

Topography and hydrography.—Brown’s Valley, which
the Tennessee River follows from the northeastern cor-
ner of the state to Guntersville, contains several low
longitudinal chert ridges. The country bordering the
river from about the eastern edge of Morgan County to
the western edge of Limestone is a wide base-leveled
undulating plain (not a flood-plain, however), in which
some of the roads and railroads run straight for miles.
Toward its eastern end there are several peaks and
small plateaus rising above it, capped by sandstone be-
longing to the next region, which protects the underly-
ing softer limestone from erosion and to a considerable
extent from solution by meteoric waters. A few of the
smaller peaks near Huntsville have already lost their
sandstone caps, and are therefore much farther on the
road to complete obliteration than those which are still
capped.

In Lauderdale and Colbert Counties there are many
chert ridges and limestone (Tuscumbia or St. Louis
limestone) bluffs near the river. The Bangor limestone
is almost confined to the steep slopes connecting this val-
ley with the sandstone plateau region to be described
next, and it is especially noticeable in Jackson County
and the eastern part of Madison, where the edges of the
plateau have been much dissected by erosion. A promi-
nent feature of Morgan, Lawrence and Colbert Counties
is the Little Mountains, an escarpment running approxi-
mately east and west, with a steep northern slope rising
300 to 500 feet above the main valley (or 900 to 1,000
feet above sea-level), and a gentle southern slope. This
escarpment owes its presence to the Hartselle* sandstone
above mentioned.

*Misspelled “Hartsells” by the U. S. Post Office Dept.

42 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

On account of the prevalence of limestone in the val-
ley, caves, natural bridges, subterranean streams and
large limestone springs are rather common. The springs
are found in every county; the most noted are those at
Huntsville and Tuscumbia.

The Tennessee River, which touches nearly every
county in the region, is a large navigable stream, over
half a mile wide in some places. Very few accurate
measurements of its fluctuations in Alabama are availa-
ble, but there are probably places where it rises as much
as 50 feet. Its water is very muddy in spring, but green-
ish in late fall or whenever it is near its lowest stage,
the green color presumably resulting from a mixture of
the blue characteristic of limestone streams with yellow
clay in suspension. Mussel} Shoals, in Lauderdale, Col-
bert and Lawrence Counties, is a noteworthy feature of
this great river. There the river falls 85 feet in about
15 miles, over strata of the Lauderdale chert, and is very
wide and dotted with numerous islands. Opposite De-
catur and at a few other places along the more sluggish
portion of the river it is bordered by swamps and
sloughs something like those along some coastal plain
rivers.

In Brown’s Valley the streams, including the Tennes-
see itself, all run lengthwise of the valley, except in
Blount County, where they run out of it into the adjoin-
ing coal region, as do some of those in the Coosa valley
region.

Climate.—Climatic data for the Tennessee valley can
be found in the appendix, under the stations Madison,
Decatur and Florence. The winters are damp and the
summers dry, as a rule, which together with the fluctua-
tions of the Tennessee River must cause considerable sea-
sonal variations in the ground-water level, and facilitate
the natural processes of soil formation.

Forest types.—The forest types of this region are as
diversified as the topography. It is difficult to recon-
struct in the mind’s eye the original forests of the fertile
plain bordering the river, but they must have been large-

+Often misspelled “Muscle.”

1B. TENNESSEE VALLEY. 43

ly of the oak-hickory type. The limestone slopes support
a great variety of hardwoods, and these forests have
been comparatively little disturbed, because the ground
is mostly too steep and rocky for agricultural purposes.
The chert ridges, the Little Mountains, and the bottoms,
banks and bluffs of the Tennessee River all have their
characteristic trees.

Fires are too rare to be of any importance in this re-
gion, originally because of the rapid humification of the
fallen leaves, and now also because of the discontinuity
of the forests.

LIST OF TREES.

T

3-4 Pinus Taeda ‘Short-leaf pine Hartselle sandstone, ete.
1-2 Pinus echinata ‘Short-leaf pine Driest soils
1-2 Pinus Virginiana \Chert ridges mostly
0-0 Taxodium distichum | Cypress ‘Along creeks west
|_ of Florence
10-15 Juniperus Virginiana (Cedar ‘Limestone slopes mostly
3-2 Juglans nigra (Black) walnut Richest soils
5-4 Hicoria ovata ‘Scaly bark |
hickory ‘Rich woods
2-1 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
1-1 Hicoria glabra Hickory ‘Dry woods
0-0 Hicoria minima Bitternut River banks
hickory
2-4 Salix nigra Willow Banks of streams
0-0 Populus deltoides Cottonwood _ River banks
0-0 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Bottoms
0-0 Ostrya Virginiana
1-2 Betula nigra Birch ‘Banks of creeks
| and rivers
6-4 Fagus grandifolia Beech Rich woods
2-1 Castanea dentata Chestnut ‘Chert ridges, ete.
4-2 Quercus alba White oak | Various habitats
3-2 Quercus stellata Post oak ‘Dry non-caleareous soils
0-1 Quercus Prinus \Chestnut oak |Non-calcareous ridges
2-3 Quercus Muhlenbergii Calcareous soils
0-1 Quercus Michauxii ‘Swamp chest- |
nut oak Bottoms
4-4 Quercus falcata /Red oak |Dry soils
0-0 Quercus velutina Non-calcareous ridges
0-0 Quercus rubra
1-0 Quercus coccinea ‘Spanishoak Dry soils
2-2 Quercus Schneckii |\Calcareous soils :
1-1 Quercus Marylandica —Black-jack oak Driest soils
2-2 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
2-3 Quercus Phellos Willow oak ~— Flatwoods and bottoms
3-2 Ulmus Americana Elm Rich soils

di ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

3-2 Ulmusalata |Elm Flatwoods, ete.

1-0 Ulmus fulva \Shppery elm _ | Richest soils

0-0 Planera aquatica River banks below
Florence

2-2 Celtis occidentalis Hackberry River-banks, ete.

1-0 Morus rubra Mulberry Rich soils

3-2 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Various habitats

2-1 Sassafras variifolum Sassafras

6-5 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Various habitats

3-4 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Banks of streams

0-0 Amelanchier sp. Service-berry

0-0 Crataegus viridis (Red) haw Bottoms

0-0 Prunus Americana Wild plum Rich soils

0-0 Prunus umbellata Hog plum, sloe

1-0 Prunus serotina Wild cherry

1-1 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Calcareous soils mostly

0-1 Gleditschia triacanthos |Honey locust |Calcareous soils mostly

1-0 Robinia Pseudacacia Black locust | Mountain slopes mostly

0-1 Cotinus Americanus Chittamwood | Limestone slopes only

0-0 Ilex opaca Holly

0-0 Acer Saccharum? Sugar maple |Rich woods

1-2 Acer saccharinum Silver maple ‘Muddy river banks

2-3 Acer rubrum Red maple Along smallest
streams, ete.

0-1 Acer Negundo River-banks, etc.

1-0 Aesculus octandra Buckeye Richest soils

1-0 Tilia sp. Basswood, lin Rich woods

2-2 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

2-2 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Poorer soils mostly

0-1 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum sa a near Tennessee

iver

0-0 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood Non-caleareous ridges

0-0 Bumelialycioides . Limestone outcrops, etc.

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon Various habitats

0-0 MHalesia Carolina

3-1 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich soils

0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw Dry woods

A noteworthy feature of this list is the large number
of trees in it which have durable dark-colored heart-
wood. Among them are the cedar, walnut, mulberry,
sassafras, cherry, redbud, black locust and chittamwood,
and several others show the same character in lesser
degree. The last-named (Cotinus Americanus, also
known as Rhus cotinoides) is one of the rarest small
trees in the United States, and is not known in any other
part of Alabama. It has been found at several different
places in this region, but all within a few miles of the
Huntsville meridian. The honey locust (Gleditschia)

1B. TENNESSEE VALLEY. 45

does not seem to be indigenous in any other part of the
state, though it grows along roadsides, in pastures, etc.,
in several other regions.

This is one of the few divisions of Alabama which has
no long-leaf pine and apparently no species of Magnolia.
Evergreens are scarcer here than in any other region,
with one exception, having constituted only about 16%
of the original forests if the above figures are correct.
Most of the evergreens are of a single species, the cedar,
which although it is being cut more than any other tree
in the region, is relatively more abundant now than it
was originally, because it is chiefly confined to rocky
slopes unsuited to agriculture. (The vast forests which
have disappeared from the more level and easily tilled
areas presumably consisted almost entirely of deciduous
trees.)

Population, percentage of woodland, ete.—In 1910 the
density of population in the Tennessee valley proper was
about 53 persons to the square mile, an increase of 11%
since 1900. This comparatively small increase is char-
acteristic of many other parts of the United States where
agriculture is the dominant industry and where the den-
sity of population has already passed 40 per square
mile. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are white.
Probably not more than 40% of the area is at present
wooded, and the remaining forest is chiefly confined to
rocky slopes and wet bottoms, which would be difficult
to cultivate. There is little or no free range for cattle.

Forest products.—The Tennessee valley is pre-emi-
nently the hardwood region of the state (as already indi-
cated by the small percentage of evergreens), and it still
supports a great variety of wood-manufacturing indus-
tries. About 10% of the manufacturers listed by Harris
and Maxwell in their paper on the wood-using industries
of Alabama are located in this region. The principal
forest products, in approximate order of total value,
seem to be as follows:

Cedar posts, poles, and pencil-wood. :
Cooperage stock of various kinds, both tight and slack.
Cross-ties from various species of oak.

Crates and baskets.

46 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Spokes, handles, hubs.

Wagons, furniture.

Columns and pump-logs.
Shingles.

Boats.

Shuttles.

Hickory fiber for street brooms.
Locust pins.

Sporting goods.

Charcoal (less now than formerly).
Butter trays.

Walnuts and hickory nuts.
Medicine from barks, roots, etc.
Sassafras oil.

The Southern Lumberman’s directory lists 48 sawmills
from this region, with an average capacity of 9,250 feet
a day, and 19 other wood-working establishments. This
is a larger number of mills in proportion to the remain-
ing area of fores than any other region has. The two
largest mills in the region have a daily capacity of 30,000
feet each. One of these, at Falkville, operates 614 miles
of tram-road, or logging railroad.

These mills cut a greater variety of timber than those
of any other division of the state, too. Five of them
claim to cut long-leaf pine and two white pine, but the
supposed long-leaf pine is probably mostly Pinus Taeda
and the white perhaps P. Virginiana. Eighteen mills.
cut short-leaf pine, 9 cedar, 7 walnut, 24 hickory, 2 birch,
13 beech, 9 chestnut, 38 white oak, 40 red oak (these
names doubtless cover several species of oak, as ex-
plained on page 33), 12 elm, 3 hackberry, 3 cucumber
(probably obtained from some region farther south), 34
poplar, 16 “red” (sweet) gum, 7 sycamore, 5 cherry, 6.
basswood (lin), 5 maple, 4 tupelo gum, and 23 ash, not
to mention several other woods reported by only one mill
each. No statistics of the relative amount of each of
these woods cut in the region are available, but for most
of them some figures covering the whole state can be
found in Appendix E.

Pencil-wood mills are located in Jackson County and
the eastern part of Madison, where the cedar seems most
abundant at present, and at Decatur, and much of their
product is shipped to England and Germany for the use
of the well-known pencil-makers there. A news item

2A. PLATEAU REGION. 47

sent out from Florence to the state newspapers on Oct.
26, 1912, stated that the river bank was lined with white
oak and red oak cross-ties from there to the west end
of the county, and the value of the year’s output from
that county alone was estimated at $125,000 (which
would mean enough for over 100 miles of railroad). De-
catur seems to be the greatest center of hardwood manu-
factures in the state, in proportion to population at least.
Quite a number of wood-working industries are located
also at Bridgeport, Huntsville, Florence and Sheffield.

2. The Coal Region.

This includes all those parts of the state where the
country rock is Coal Measures (Carboniferous proper, or
Pennsylvanian). It can be divided for convenience,
though not very sharply, into two subdivisions, the
plateau region and the basin region. The line of separa-
tion between them corresponds approximately with the
northern boundary of Walker and Jefferson Counties.

A. The Plateau Region.
(Figures 9-13.)

This sub-region includes all the Coal Measures north
of the Tennessee River (i. e., the spurs of the Cumber-
land Mountains in Madison and Jackson Counties), the
main body of similar rocks down to the line named in the
preceding paragraph, commonly called Sand Mountain,
and two isolated plateaus a little farther east, Chandler
Mountain and Lookout Mountain. It is a continuation of
the Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky, East Tennessee
and Northwest Georgia, and covers about 3,100 square
miles in Alabama.

References.—Harbison, Harper 2, Harper 3, McCalley
2 (5, 16-40, 52-75, 81-96), McCalley 3 (15-218), Mohr 5
(89, 110), Mohr 6 (95, 118), Mohr 7, Mohr 8 (20, 69-80),
Smith 4 (59-60, 97-104), Smith 6 (36, 37, 68-69, 103-106,
108-110, 120), Smith 7 (213-214, 217, 296, 390-398, 404-
411, 438), Smith 9 (9-10), Toumey 2 (160-161).

48 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Geology and soils.—The geology is very simple, the
rocks being of the lowest Coal Measures, nearly all sand-
stone (a little shale), and the strata very little dis-
turbed by faults, folds, or tilting. Toward the western
edge the Coal Measures dip beneath the unconsolidated
formations of the coastal plain so gradually as to make
the boundary between the two on the surface very in-
tricate, as explained in the introductory part of this re-
port (page 21). The soil is nearly all sandy loam, de-
rived from sandstone by weathering, and its prevailing
color is yellowish gray or pale buff. It is rather defi-
cient in lime and phosphorus, but pretty well supplied
with other elements of fertility, and has the advantage
of being easily tilled, and responding readily to fertili-
zation.

Topography and hydrography.—The greater part of
the plateau stands pretty high—in some places nearly
1,000 feet—above the valleys on either side of it (hav-
ing a maximum elevation in Alabama of about 1,800 feet
above sea-level), but its topography is of the kind called
immature by geomorphologists. The smaller streams
have not yet excavated their valleys much, while the
larger ones, especially toward the edges of the plateau,
have cut deep narrow rocky gorges, making some of the
most picturesque scenery imaginable, for a country that
can hardly be called mountainous. With very few ex-
ceptions the streams of this region originate on the
plateau and flow off into the surrounding valley regions
and coastal plain, and they are mostly small, swift,
clear, and not subject to much fluctuation.

In Winston and Marion Counties and to some extent
in those adjoining there are many examples of a pecu-
liar type of topography known as “rock-houses.”* As
one ascends a ravine he will often find at its head a mas-
sive overhanging ledge of sandstone with its upper edge
horizontal and either straight or concave. A _ small
stream usually tumbles over the ledge in wet weather,
while at all seasons there is likely to be water dripping

*For additional descriptions of this sort of topographic feature
see McCalley 2 (17-18, 54), Smith 4 (98-99), Smith 6 (108), Smith
7 (405), and Mohr 8 (75-76).

2A. PLATEAU REGION. 49

from crevices on its under side, and often a few small
springs at its base as well. Some of the ledges overhang
so far that part of the roof of the “house” back of the
edge has become loosened by the action of water on joint-
planes and fallen in, leaving the outer edge as a natural
bridge. A beautiful example of this can be seen near
Natural Bridge station in Winston County. The bridge
there has a span of about 80 feet and a width of about
20, and is of very graceful proportions, being a very flat
arch with a thickness of only three or four feet in the
middle. (See figure 10.)

Climate.—None of the present weather stations with-
in this region have been established long enough to give
accurate climatic data, but the climate of the plateau
probably does not differ much from that ef the Tennes-
see valley, in average annual temperature at least. On
account of its elevated position it may be a little more
exempt from early and late frosts, and thus have a
slightly longer growing season.

Forest types.—The principal forest type of the plateau
region is the dry oak and pine woods of the compara-
tively level loamy uplands. Much more limited in ex-
tent, but perhaps equally rich in species, are the richer
woods of ravines and bluffs, sufficiently protected from
fire and evaporation for the growth of beech, sweet gum,
poplar, etc., and the swamps and banks of creeks and
branches. Fire is moderately frequent in the level open
woods, especially in the limited areas where long-leaf
pine grows.

LIST OF TREES.

-1 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine ‘Poorest soils

1
12-16 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine [ener ally distrib-
or swamp pine | uted
8-10 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine |Driest soils
-3-4 Pinus Virginiana Cliff pine Rocky places
1-1 Tsuga Canadensis Spruce pineor |
hemlock Ravines
1-1 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar ‘Rocky places
0-0 Hicoria ovata Scaly-bark |
hickory Richer soils
3-2 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
2-1 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick- |
Me TOLY, Dry woods

5e ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

|

Salix nigra Willow Along creeks

0-1
0-1 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Along creeks mostly
0-0 Ostrya Virginiana Ravines and bluffs
0-0 Betula nigra Birch Along creeks
0-0 Betula lenta |Birch Exposed cliffs
3-3 Fagus grandifolia Beech Richer soils
4-2 Castanea dentata Chestnut Dry woods
0-0 Castanea pumila Chinquapin Dry woods
6-4 Quercus alba White oak Richer soils
7-5 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry woods
4-4 Quercus Prinus Chestnut oak _ | Dry or rocky places
2-4 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry woods
3-3 Quercus velutina ‘Black oak Dry woods
1-1 Quercus rubra
3-3 Quercus coccinea Spanish oak Dry woods
2-3 Quercus Marylandica \Black-jack oak | Driest soils
0-1 Quercus nigra Water oak Along creeks mostly
1-1 Magnolia glauca Bay Along branches
0-0 Magnolia tripetala Cucumber tree | Ravines
1-1 Magnolia macrophylla (Cucumber tree |Ravines ,
6-4 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar phase distrib-
ute
0-0 Sassafras variifolium (Sassafras
3-4 Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Richer soils
0-1 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along creeks
0-0 Amelanchier sp. Service-berry
0-0 Malus angustifolia Crab-apple
0-0 Cercis Canadensis Redbud
2-1 Robinia Pseudacacia Black locust Bluffs mostly
2-2 Ilex opaca Holly Ravines, ete.
0-0 Acer Jeucoderme ‘Sugar maple
4-5 Acer rubrum Red maple Along branches
mostly
0-0 Tilia sp. ~ Lin, basswood | Richer soils
4-4 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods
* 8-2 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Various habitats
0-0 Nyssa biflora? Black gum Along branches
2-2 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood Various habitats
0-0 Halesia Carolina Rich woods
1-1 Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf Ravines, ete.
0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw

There is a marked difference between this list of trees
and that for the Tennessee valley, especially when the
percentages of abundance are taken into consideration.
It is interesting to note that some of the trees that grow
on the poorest soils in the valley are common on the
plateau, and some of those common in the valley are con-
fined to the richest soils on the plateau, all of which is

2A. PLATEAU REGION. 51

easily explained. About 29% of the trees in the
primeval forests of the plateau were evergreen. Be-
sides the conifers (the first six species on the list) the
other evergreens are the bay and holly. The water-oak
and sweet-leaf are semi-evergreens.

Population, amount of woodland, ete—In 1910 the
plateau region had about 30 inhabitants to the square
-mile, an increase of about 37% in ten years. This re-
gion has by far the largest proportion of white people of
any part of the state, namely, about 98%.

About 75% of the area-is estimated to be still wooded,
_and consequently open range for stock is the rule in most
parts. Now that the richer soils of the neighboring
valleys are nearly all occupied by farmers the once de-
spised sandy lands of the plateau are being utilized
more and more, and for the last quarter of a century or
so the agricultural population has ‘been increasing here
more rapidly than in any other equal area in northern
Alabama. (The greater percentages of increase shown
by some counties a little farther south are due more to
mining and manufacturing than to farming.)

All the commoner trees have probably suffered about
equally from farming and lumbering operations, but
some of the pines have spread considerably in aban-
doned clearings, and thus increased in relative abun-
dance. Before there was much farming done in this re-
gion large areas are said to have been denuded of their
best timber to make charcoal for the iron furnaces in the
valleys, but that practice is now on the wane, coke hbe-
ing used much more than charcoal. A great deal of tim-
ber has been consumed also for props in the numerous
coal mines in the region, and of course for cross-ties on
the railroads.

No navigable river traverses this region, but the Ten-
nessee approaches it closely in Jackson and Marshall
Counties, and furnishes an outlet for some of its prod-
ucts. Railroads are not very numerous as yet, largely
because the abrupt edges of the plateau are too difficult
for them to climb in many places. Some points in the
region are at present 20 miles from a railroad.

The principal forest products seem to be as follows:

52 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Short-leaf pine lumber.

Post-oak and chestnut cross-ties.
Fuel and charcoal.

Chestnut poles and posts.

Mine timbers.

Staves, handles, furniture.
Chestnut oak tanbark.

Chestnut wood for tanning extract.
Chestnuts and hickory nuts.

The Southern Lumberman lists 21 sawmills from this
region, with an average daily capacity of 6,300 feet. The
largest cuts only 15,000 feet a day. With over 7% of the
total standing timber of the state, the plateau region
seems to be producing only a little over 1% of the state’s
preset output of lumber. Even if the enumeration is in-
complete, with the possible exception of two regions less
than 1,000 square miles in extent, this one seems to have
the fewest mills in proportion to the amount of wood-
land, the smallest average capacity per mill, and the
smallest total output in proportion to the area and the
number of inhabitants. All this is probably due mainly
to the topography, which hinders the building of rail-
roads. Evidently this region contains a large reserve
supply of timber for future use.

Five of the mills claim to cut long-leaf pine, but this
may be an exaggeration, as was intimated in the case of
the Tennessee valley. Ten of them cut short-leaf pine
(which includes two or three species), 5 hickory, 2
beech, 2 chestnut, 13 white oak, 11 red oak, 11 poplar,
and 2 sweet gum.

B. The basin region.
(Figures 14, 15.)

This includes the remainder of the Alabama coal
fields, comprising the Warrior field proper and the Ca-
haba and Coosa coal fields a little to the southeast of it.
The area thus defined covers about 3,300 square miles.
It has no exact counterpart in nay adjoining state, but a
good deal of the coal region of Pennsylvania and West
Virginia has very similar topography.

2B. BASIN REGION. 53

References.—Harper 1, McCalley 2 (5-6, 109-124, 128-
542), McCalley 3 (218-225), Mohr 8 (20, 90-93), Smith
4 (60-95, 105-109), Smith 6 (386-37, 106-108, 123), Smith
7 (212, 214-215, 399-404, 445-448), Tuomey 1 (81-93).

Geology and soils.—The sandstones of the plateau just
described dip southwestward, and. in the basin region are
covered deeply in most places with newer strata, still be-
longing to the Coal Measures. Although some pretty
thick beds of sandstone are found in the basin, the rocks
are as a rule shaly; and there are also a few thin beds of
limestone and of iron ore, according to McCalley, as well
as many coal seams of varying thickness. In a few
places near the southeastern edge of the Warrior basin
and in the Cahaba and Coosa fields the strata are con-
siderably crumpled and faulted, but elsewhere they are
nearly horizontal.

No analyses of soils in the basin region seem to be
available, but they are more clayey as a rule than those
of the plateau, though perhaps not any more fertile, on
the uplands at least. Agricultural operations are chiefly
confined to bottom-lands.

Topography and hydrography.—Erosion has _ pro-
gressed much farther here than in the plateau region,
partly because the rocks are softer, and perhaps also for
other reasons, and the topography is what would be
called mature, or even old in some parts. There is little
level land on the uplands, and many of the creeks flow
through rather wide flat-bottomed valleys bordered by
bluffs. The railroads and settlements are mostly in the
valleys, instead of on the uplands as they are in the
plateau region. There are few steep bare cliffs in the
basin region, the bluffs formed by erosion being mostly
well rounded in outline, and densely wooded. Waterfalls
and natural bridges are scarce. The smallest streams
usually head in rich ravines which are dry a large part
of the time. There are no big springs or subterranean
streams. The smaller creeks dry up in summer, and the
larger ones and the rivers are usually somewhat turbid,
and have considerable seasonal fluctuation. A few have
their sources in limestone valleys belonging to the next

a4 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

region, and when the water is low enough the influence
of the limestone in such streams is perceptible.*

Climate.—Judging from the records for Cordova,
which is pretty centrally located in the basin region, the
average temperature is about 61°, the rainfall 53 inches,
and the summers a little drier than the winters. The au-
tumn months are the driest, as in most other parts of the
eastern United States.

Forest types.—The forest types can be correlated pret-
ty closely with the topography. There are dry oak and
pine woods on the uplands or ridges, dense thickets of
cliff pine on the brows of many of the bluffs, a consid-
erable variety of trees on the lower slopes of the same
bluffs and in ravines, and still other kinds in the valley
bottoms and on the banks of rivers.

In the northeastern half of Walker County, and ex-
tending a short distance into Winston and Jefferson,
there is, or has been, a splendid long-leaf pine forest cov-
ering part of several townships, remarkably similar in
appearance to some of the open pine forests within 100 ~
miles of the coast. (See figure 14.)+ Although not very
far from the coastal plain, its presence does not seem to
be correlated with any outlying patch of coastal plain
deposits, for the soil is apparently nothing but a resi-
dual sandy loam derived from the Coal Measures, and
does not differ materially from that of the plateau region.

On the shale bluffs of the Warrior River in Tuscaloosa
County one finds a remarkable number of trees and
shrubs belonging to species that are commonly supposed
to be lime-loving; but a recent analysis of a typical speci-
men of the rock showed only 0.42% of lime (computed
as CaO). The percentage of potash (K,O) was much
higher, 3.95%, and may possibly be the significant fac-
tor in this case.

Fire is less frequent in the basin than on the plateau,
no doubt chiefly on account of the more broken topo-

*On Oct. 16, 1911, the Locust Fork of the Warrior River near
Palos, Jefferson Co., looked as blue as the outlet of a large lime-
stone spring.

+For additional information about this isolated area of long-leaf
pine see McCalley 2 (58, 129), Mohr 5 or 6 (42), Mohr 8 (91),
Smith 6 (108), Smith 7 (404); especially the first-named.

—

2B. BASIN REGION. 55

graphy, which limits the spread of fire. This is pretty
well illustrated by the manner of growth of the cliff pine,
a thin-barked tree very sensitive to fire. As stated
above, it forms thickets on the brows of bluffs. Fire
rarely originates in the bottoms and travels up the
bluffs, and a forest fire starting on the unland and com-
ing to the top of a bluff would run down hill very slowly,
if at all.

LIST OF TREES.

|

Pinus palustris ‘Long-leaf pine | Poorest soils

5-4
5-20 Pinus Taeda |Short-leaf pine Nearly everywhere
6-6 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Dry uplands
5-7 Pinus Virginiana Cliff pine Dry blvffs
1-1 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar 'Dry cliffs
0-0 Juglans nigra Black walnut Rich soils
2-1 Hicoria alba | Hickory Dry woods
1-1 Hicoria glabra |(Pignut)

hickory Dry woods
1-2 Salix nigra ‘Willow Creek banks, ete.
1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana _Ironwood Bottoms mostly
2-1 Ostrya Virginiana Bluffs, ete.
1-1 Betula nigra Birch Along creeks and rivers
6-5 Fagus grandifolia ‘Beech Ravines and bluffs
0-0 Castanea dentata ‘Chestnut
5-4 Quercus alba White oak Various habitats
4-3 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry soils
0-0 Quercus Durandii Bluffs on Warrior River
2-2 Quercus Prinus Chestnut oak Dry bluffs, ete.
1-1 Quercus Mvhlenbergii Bluffs near Warrior Riv
2-1 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest-

nut oak Bottoms, ete.
3-4 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry soils
1-1 Quercus velutina Black oak Dry soils
0-0 Quercus rubra | Ravines, ete.
1-1 Quercus coccinea Spanish oak Dry woods
2-2 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak) Driest soils
0-0 Quercus cinerea Poorest soils
2-2 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds mostly
0-0 Quercus laurifolia | Along Warrior Riv.,etc.
1-1 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Bottoms, ete.
0-0 Ulmus Americana Elm Bottoms, etc.
1-1 Ulmusalata Elm Bluffs, ete.
0-0 Ulmus fulva \Shppery elm _ | Richest soils
0-0 Ulmus serotina Elm Rich bluffs
0-0 Celtis occidentalis Hackberry River-banks
1-1 Morus rubra ‘Mulberry Bottoms and bluffs
1-1 Magnolia glauca Bay Along branches
0-0 Magnoliaacuminata {Cucumber tree} Ravines and bluffs
1-1 Magnolia macrophylla |Cucumber tree|Ravines and bluffs
4-3 Liriodendron Tulipifera!Poplar Ravines mostly

56 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA,

7 LIST OF TREES—Continued.
0-0 Asimina triloba Pawpaw Rich bottoms
0-0 Sassafas variifolium Sassafras
3-4 Liquidambar Styraciflua|Sweet gum | Widely distributed
1-2 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along creeks and rivers
0-0 Amelanchier Canadensis|Service berry | Bluffs, etc.
0-0 Crataegus spathulata |Haw Dry woods
0-0 Prunus Americana Wild plum Rich woods
0-0 Prunus serotina Wild cherry |Ravines, etc.
0-0 Prunus Caroliniana Mock orange | Ravines, Tuscaloosa Co.
0-0 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Rich woods
0-0 Cladrastis lutea . |Yellow-wood |Bluffs on Warrior River
1-1 Ilex opaca Holly Ravines, ete.
0-0 Ilex decidua Bottoms.
0-0 Acer Saccharum? Sugar maple /Ravines and bluffs
1-1 Acer leucoderme Sugar maple |Ravines and bluffs
3-4 Acer rubrum Red maple Along branches
0-0 Acer Negundo River banks, ete.
1-1 Tilia heterophylla? Lin, basswood Rich woods
3-3 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods
2-1 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum ___| Various habitats
0-0 Nyssa biflora Black gum Along branches
1-1 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood Bluffs, etc.
0-0 Bumelia lycioides Bluffs of Warrior River
0-0 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon __|Old fields mostly
2-1 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich woods
0-0 Fraxinus quadrangulata|Ash Bluffs of Warrior River
1-1 Black haw __ |Bluffs, etc.

Viburnum rufidulum

About 34% of the trees in the original forests seem to
have been evergreen. There are represented here fifteen
species of oak, which together make up nearly one-
fourth of the forest growth.

Population, amount of woodland, etc.—The coal basin
region had in 1910 about 40 inhabitants to the square
mile, an increase of 38% since 1900. About 70% of them
are white. But there are probably nearly as many min-
ers as farmers in the region,* and about 80% of the

*In Walker and Jefferson Counties, excluding the cities of Birm-
ingham and Bessemer (which are in the Coosa valley region and
probably number very few coal miners among their citizens) there
were in 1910, according to the census, 33,095 adult male inhabit-
ants. The number of men employed in or around coal mines in
the same two counties, according to reports of the state mine in-
spector, was 14,443 in 1909 and 15,168 in 1911. Even if some of ©
the miners are not adults, if the merchants, railroad men, iron
miners, etc., were deducted from the total adult male population
it would doubtless leave the farmers less numerous than coal min-
ers in the areas named.

2B. BASIN REGION. 57

area seems to be still wooded. Cattle have open range in
all or nearly all the counties. The bottom-land trees
have suffered most from agricultural operations, as al-
ready indicated, in which this region differs from most
other parts of the state.

None of the rivers are naturally navigable, but the
Warrior is being gradually made so by the construction
of locks. The region is fairly well supplied with rail-
roads.

Forest products.—The Southern Lumberman lists 21
sawmills from this region, with an average capacity of
12,900 feet a day. Thirteen of these mills claim to cut
long-leaf pine, 14 short-leaf, 2 white pine (Pinus Virgin-
iana?), 11 white oak, 9 red oak, and 9 poplar. The long-
leaf pine mills are mostly in Walker and Tuscaloosa
Counties. The largest one, which is at Manchester,
Walker County, operates 15 miles of railroad and can
saw 60,000 feet of lumber a day. The relatively small
development of the lumber industry in this well-wooded
region is doubtless due partly to the topography, but
perhaps also to the fact that coal mining is the greatest
industry, and much timber is used for mine props, etc.,
without going through a sawmill. A good deal has also
been consumed in the form of charcoal for the iron fur-
naces in neighboring regions.

Other forest products besides lumber are post oak
cross-ties, white oak cooperage stock, and naval stores
(i. e., rosin and turpentine, from long-leaf pine), the last
not being made farther north than Tuscaloosa County.

58 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

3. Coosa (Appalachian) Valley Region.
(Figures 16-18.)

This is the southwestern end of the great Appalachian
valley, which lies between the coal region and the Blue
Ridge and is over 1,000 miles long, the other end of it be-
ing in Pennsylvania. In Alabama it comprises the vai-
ley of the Coosa River from the Georgia line to the north-
ern border of Chilton County, and several narrower val-
leys of similar geological formation lying a little to the
northwestward and parallel to it, such as Wills’s, Mur-
phree’s, Roup’s, Jones’s, Shades and Cahaba; in all about
4,000 square miles.

References.—McCalley 5, Mohr 3 (529), Mohr 5 or 6
(41-42), Mohr 8 (21, 67-68), Smith 2 (83-188), Smith 3
(9-39), Smith 6 (27-35, 95-102, 105-107), Smith 7 (190-
210, 368-389, 396-402), Smith 9 (7-9, 71-77, 81-87),
Tuomey 1 (8-29), Tuomey 2 (27-29, 79-93).

Geology and soils.—The rocks of the Coosa valley re-
gion are mostly Cambrian, Ordovician and _ Silurian.
Strips of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, mostly too
narrow to show on a state map, crop out along the edges
of the coal region. The strata are nearly everywhere
folded and faulted in a complex manner, but with a gen-
eral northeast-southwest strike, as already noticed in
Brown’s Valley. The soils are very diverse in color, tex-
ture and fertility. The principal varieties are residual
gray, yellow and red clay, shale and chert. The Upper
Silurian sandstone ridges, such as Red Mountain, have
thin sandy soils much like those of the plateau region
already described, but deep beds of sand are rare or
wanting, as in the Tennessee valley. There are many
limestone outcrops of various ages in the valleys and on
mountain slopes. Some of the streams are bordered by
more or less alluvial soil.

Topography and hydrography.—The topography is
about as varied as the geology, and closely correlated
with it. A prominent feature of this region, as of the
whole Appalachian valley, is long parallel ridges with
broad base-leveled valleys between them; a decidedly ma-

3. COOSA VALLEY REGION. 59

ture topography. Streams are pretty numerous, but
many of the smaller ones now run through cultivated
‘fields, where they have eroded their channels several
feet below the general level as a result of the lowering of
the ground-water level by deforestation, and they are
also dry part of the time. The larger ones become muddy
and rise several to many feet in the rainy season (winter
and spring). The Coosa River, as far down as the point
where it leaves Etowah County and becomes a county
boundary, is a sluggish navigable stream with very sin-
uous meanders, rising and falling about 25 feet during
an average year. Below that point it is shallower,
- swifter, and straighter, and not naturally navigable, but
navigation has been extended down it some distance by
means of locks.

Large springs, caves and YY eemae streams are
much less frequent in the Coosa valley than in that of
the Tennessee, but small springs are common. Swamps
are almost unknown. In the narrower side valleys, ex-
cept Wills’s, the streams do not run lengthwise of them
for any considerable distance, but soon turn aside into
the coal regions, which in many places are actually
lower, beyond their elevated rims, than the valleys. In
Wills’s Valley the size of the streams is limited in an-
other way. The divide between the Tennessee and
Coosa Rivers crosses this valley near Valley Head, and
it is only about 50 miles from there to the south end of
the valley; too short a distance to form a river.

Climate.—Records from two weather stations in this
region, Gadsden and Talladega, will be found in the sub-
‘joined table. The average temperature is about 63°, and
the growing season about 210 days. The summer and
fall are rather dry, as in the Tennessee valley.

Forest types.—These are closely connected with the
topography and soil, and are too numerous to be de-
scribed in detail here. Near the Coosa River all the way
through the region the chert ridges and even some of
the more level areas were originally covered with splen-
did forests of long-leaf pine, intermingled with various
oaks and a small proportion of short-leaf pine. The veg-
etation of the sandstone ridges is somewhat similar, ex-

60 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

cept that the proportion of long-leaf pine is less. Hard-
woods prevail in the narrower valleys, especially in the
flatwoods near the southwestern end of Jones’s Valley,
in Jefferson County. Still other types of forest clothe
the mountain slopes and ravines, or follow the banks of
streams.

Fire is frequent in the long-leaf pine forests, less so
elsewhere, especially in the flatwoods and bottoms,
where it is rare or unknown.

LIST OF TREES.

10-8 Pinus palustris 'Long-leaf pine |Poorest soils
15-20 Pinus Taeda ‘Short-leaf pine | Nearly everywhere

7-6 Pinus echinata ‘Short-leaf pine |Dry soils
2-2 Pinus Virginiana Rocky hills
4-2. Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Limestone outcrops

mostly
1-0 Juglans nigra ‘Black walnut __|Rich soils
1-1 Hicoria ovata Scaly-bark

hickory Flatwoods, etc.

2-1 Hicoria alba ‘Hickory Dry woods
1-1 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick-

| ory Dry woods
0-0 Hicoria microcarpa? Hickory Chert ridges
1-2 Salix nigra Willow Banks of streams
0-0 Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks
1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Near streams
1-1 Ostrya Virginiana he Rich woods
0-1 Betula nigra ‘Birch Along creeks and

| rivers
2-2 Fagus grandifolia ‘Beech Rich woods
2-1 Castanea dentata Chestnut Ridges mostly
5-3 Quercus alba White oak Various habitats
6-4 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry soils
0-0 Quercus lyrata Bottoms
1-1 Quercus Prinus Chestnut oak Rocky ridges 3
0-0 Quercus Muhlenbergii Calcareous soils
1-1 Quercus Michauxii Swamp-chest-

nut oak Bottoms
3-4 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry soils
0-0 Quercus pagodaefolia Flatwoods and bot-
toms

0-0 Quercus velutina Black oak Dry soils
0-0 Quercus rubra
0-0 Quercus Schneckii Flatwoods
1-1 Quercus coccinea Spanish oak Dry woods
3-4 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak |Driest soils
2-3 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
0-0 Quercus laurifolia
3-3 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Flatwoods, ete.

38. COOSA VALLEY REGION. 61

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

0-0 Ulmus Americana Elm Low grounds

2-2 Ulmus alata Elm Flatwoods, etc.

0-0 Ulmus fulva Slippery elm Caleareous soils

0-0 Celtis occidentalis Hackberry Banks of streams

1-0 Morus rubra Mulberry ' |Rich soils

1-1 Magnolia glauca Bay Along branches

0-0 Magnolia macrophylla |Cucumber tree /|Bluffs, etc.

4-3 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Various habitats

0-0 Asimina triloba Pawpaw Bottoms

1-1 Sassafras variifolium Sassafras

4-6 Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Various habitats

1-2 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Banks of streams

0-0 Malus angustifolia Crab-apple Flatwoods, ete.

0-0 Crataegus spathulata Haw Dry woods

0-0 Crataegus viridis Haw |Bottoms

0-0 Prunus Americana | Wald plum ‘Caleareous soils

1-1 Cercis Cabadensis Redbud |Caleareous soils
mostly

0-0 Ilex epaca Holly

0-0 Acer Saccharum ? Sugar maple Rich soils

0-0 Acer Floridanum ? Sugar maple Creek bottoms

0-0 Acer leucoderme Sugar maple Bluffs, ete.

1-0 Acer saccharinum Silver maple ee of Coosa

iver

2-3 Acer rubrum Red maple Along branches

1-1 Acer Negundo Box elder Along creeks and
rivers

0-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin Rich woods

3-3 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

1-1 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum ~ {Various habitats

0-0 Nyssa biflora Black gum Talladega County

0-0 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum Sloughs, Shelby Co.

0-0 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood Bluffs, etc.

0-0 Bumelia lycioides Limestone outcrops

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon Various habitats

1-0 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich soils

0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa River banks

0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw Dry woods

Evergreens seem to have made up about 40% of the
original forests.

Population, ete.—Leaving out of consideration Jeffer-
son County, which contains the largest city in the state,
Birmingham, which draws its trade from hundreds of
miles in every direction, and does not depend on the
Coosa valley alone for its wealth, the density of popula-
tion in this region was about 54 to the square mile in
1910. Nearly three-fourths of the inhabitants are white.

62 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Agriculture alone, the way it is practised in America at
the present time, would not support such a dense popu-
lation; and many if not most of the people make their liv-
ing from mining, manufacturing and commerce. Ap-
parently a little over half, perhaps as much as 60%, of
the region is still wooded, but the stock law prevails now
over much of the area, particularly in Talladega County,
which seems to have the largest proportion of land un-
der cultivation.

Forest products.—This region contains more large
towns and cities in proportion to its area perhaps than
any other part of the state, and wood-manufacturing in-
dustries are numerous and varied for this reason, if for
no other. Of the industries listed by Harris and Max-
well for Alabama about 20% are located in this region.
Nearly half of these, however, are in Birmingham, and
very likely much of their raw material is brought in
from other regions and even from other states by the
numerous railroads centering there.

The Southern Lumberman’s directory mentions 69
sawmills located in this region (which is 11.7% of the
number in the whole state, and a larger number ‘in pro-
portion to the amount of woodland than in any other re-
gion except the Tennessee Valley), with an average ca-
pacity of 12,070 feet a day. The five largest mills cut
from 20,000 to 60,000 feet a day, and average four miles
of tram-road apiece. The secondary weod-working in-
dustries are even more highly developed than in the Ten-
nessee valley, 23 such establishments being enumerated
in the same publication. In variety of wood consumed the
Coosa valley is second only to that of the Tennessee.
Forty-one of the mills report long-leaf pine, 40 short-leaf
pine, 2 “white pine,” 12 hickory, 2 cottonwood, 2 beech,
2 chestnut, 40 white oak, 36 “red oak,” 5 elm, 22 poplar,
10 sweet gum, 3 sycamore, 2 basswood (lin), 4 maple, 2
tupelo gum, and 4 ash, besides several species represent-
ed by one mill each. The principal wood products seem
to be as follows:

Short-leaf and long-leaf pine lumber.
Doors, sash, blinds, mouldings, interior finish.
Shingles, laths, flooring.

3. COOSA VALLEY REGION. 63

Charcoal (less now than formerly).

Post-oak and long-leaf pine cross-ties,

Cooperage stock, baskets and crates.

Furniture, wagons, freight cars.

Handles, spokes, chair stock.

Cedar posts and pencil-wood.

Mine timbers.

Tan-bark.

Roots of sassafras and other small trees for medicinal purposes.

All the charcoal iron furnaces in the state, four in
number, are located in this region, and they have been in
operation about forty years each, on the average. Their
combined annual capacity is about 80,000 tons of iron,
and as the making of a ton of iron requires just about
100 bushels of charcoal, equivalent to about 1,900 feet of
lumber, board measure, it is evident that an enormous
amount of timber (mostly pine) has been consumed in
this way. Some of the furnaces operate their own char-
coal ovens, and others get their supplies from kilns at
various convenient points. One of the largest charcoal
plants is near Attalla, and there is another large one at
Childersburg.

The naval stores industry does not seem to have in-
vaded this region yet, unless at the extreme southwest-
ern end. Its coming is probably only a question of time,
though, for it is gradually creeping inland from the vast
but depleted pine forests nearer the coast to the more
scattered bodies of long-leaf pine among the mountains.
In Talladega County especially there are considerable
areas of this pine where it would seem profitable even
now to establish the industry, provided a conservative
method of exploitation (the Herty cup-and-gutter system
or some modification of it) were used.

64 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

4. The Blue Ridge.
(Figures 19, 20.)

This begins in Pennsylvania, has its greatest develop-
ment in a complex mountain system in western North
Carolina, and tapers out in Alabama. In this state it com-
prises a single ridge with a few spurs branching off to
the southeastward, and a few isolated peaks and ridges
in the edge of the Coosa valley northwestward. The to-
tal area to be included in this region is uncertain on ac-
count of the vagueness of its southeastern boundary, but
it is probably not more than 400 square miles.

References.—Harper 7, Mohr 6 (73), Mohr 8 (59-65),
Reed (7-8, 9-10, 27-28), Smith 1 (37-48, 58-75), Smith 6
(87-88, 92, 100), Smith 7 (348-349, 361, 383), Smith 9
(6-7).

Geology and soils.—The main body of the Blue Ridge
consists of metamorphic rocks, presumably mostly pre-
Cambrian, though some of the strata must be much
more recent, for Carboniferous fossils have been found
at the southeastern base of the ridge in Clay County, ac-
cording to Dr. Smith.+ The outlying peaks and ridges
lying to the northwestward, in Calhoun and Talladega
Counties, are Cambrian (Weisner quartzite), but do not
differ perceptibly in soil or vegetation from the meta-
morphic mountains. The rocks on all these mountains
(as on many other southern mountains of various ages)
are mostly sandstone, and there is comparatively little
soil, but what little there is is rather sandy.

Topography and hydrography.—The Blue Ridge in-
cludes the highest mountain in Alabama (Cheaha, 2,400
feet above sea-level), and many peaks and ridges as high
as 2,000 feet, or over 1,000 feet above the adjacent Coosa
valley. The difference of elevation on the southeastern or
Piedmont side is almost as great, so that from the main
ridge on a clear day one can see in either direction as far
as the curvature of the earth will allow.* The slopes of

+Science IJ.18:244-246. Aug. 21, 1903.

*There are no higher peaks in sight from which to estimate dis-

tance, but the view from Cheaha must embrace at least 10,000
square miles.

4, THE BLUE RIDGE. 65

the ridges are steep and their summits narrow and undu-
lating. There are very few cliffs high enough to over-
top the trees so as to be visible from the neighboring
lowlands. Many swift clear streams course down the
mountain slopes in ravines of moderate depth, but with
few waterfalls of any size. Talladega Creek, which rises
in Clay County and flows into the Coosa River, has cut a
deep gap in the ridge a few miles from Talladega, which
now affords passage for a railroad.

Climate.—No. climatic data are available, as the re-
gion is almost uninhabited. But as a whole it is un-
doubtedly cooler and probably wetter than the regions on
either side of it, on account of its greater altitude.

Forest types.—The principal forest types are those of
dry ridges and slopes, and of damp ravines. Below 1,900
feet the long-leaf pine is a common tree, especially on
the south side, but at higher elevations other pines take

its place. The trees on the highest ridges are rather

stunted, averaging perhaps ten feet tall.
Fires are rather frequent here, as in all other places
where long-leaf pine is common.

LIST OF TREES.

Pinus Taeda

Pinus echinata

Pinus Virginiana
Juniperus Virginiana
Hicoria alba

Hicoria glabra

Bentula lenta
Fagus grandifolia
Castanea dentata
Castanea pumila
Quercus alba
Quercus stellata
Quercus Prinus

Quercus velutina
Quercus coccinea
Quercus Marylandica
Magnolia glauca
Magnolia macrophylla
Liriodendron Tulipifera
Persea pubescens

Long-leaf pine
Short-leaf pine
Short-leaf pine

Cedar
Hickory
(Pignut) hick-

Beech
Chestnut
|Chinquapin
|White oak
Post oak
/Mountain or
chestnut oak
\Black oak
‘Spanish oak
|Black-jack oak
Bay
/Cucumber tree
Poplar

‘Red bay

Dry slopes
Ravines

Ridges and slopes
Rocky places
Cliffs

Slopes

Ridges

Cliffs

|Ravines

‘Slopes

Slopes

Ravines

Slopes and ridges

Ridges

Slopes and ridges
Ridges

Ridges

Wet ravines

Rich ravines
Ravines

Wet ravines

66 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA,

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

0-1 Sassafras variifolium Sassafras ‘Ridges, ete.

1-1 Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Ravines

3-2 Robinia Pseudacacia Black locust Slopes

1-1 Ilex opaca Holly |Ravines

3-4 Acer rubrum (Red) maple =| Wet ravines

0-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin \Rich ravines

3-3 Cornus florida Dogwood Ridges and slopes
1-1 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Slopes

2-3 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood ‘Ravines and slopes
0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon

About 45% of these trees are evergreen, which is a
little larger proportion than in any region previously de-
scribed. Nearly all bottom-land trees are of course con-
spicuous by their absence. The (mountain) birch,
Betula lenta, is in Alabama almost confined to this re-
gion, and the chestnut oak is more abundant here than in
any other part of the state. The red bay. which is more:
abundant near the coast, here reaches its highest eleva-
tion. The same might be said also of the common bay
and the long-leaf pine. (There are some reasons for be-
lieving that this part of Alabama was the original home
of the latter.)

Economic features.—At least 90% of the Blue Ridge
region has never been cleared, the ground being too
steep and rocky to offer much attraction te the farmer.
Cattle have had free range here, at least until very re-
cently.

A great deal of long-leaf pine has been cut for lumber
and charcoal, but the other timbers have not suffered so
much from civilization. Some post-oak cross-ties and
doubtless some chestnut oak tan-bark have been gotten
out.

5. PIEDMONT REGION. 67

5. The Piedmont Region.
(Figures 21-24.)

Between the Blue Ridge and the fall-line, all the way
from Pennsylvania to Alabama, is a belt of foot-hills av-
eraging about 100 miles wide, known as the Piedmont
region. In Alabama it covers about 5,000 square miles.

References.—Earle, Harper 4, Reed (7-44), Smith 1
(26-36, 43-57, 76-116), Smith 6 (24-27, 87-94), Smith 7
(184-190, 348-367), Smith 9 (66-70), Tuomey 2 (43-78).

Geology and soils.—The rocks of the Piedmont region
in Alabama are presumably mostly pre-Cambrian
(Archaean), metamorphic or crystalline, obscurely or not
at all stratified, and devoid of fossils, but containing a
great variety of minerals. Lithologically they are near-
ly all granitic, gneissic, or schistose, but there are also a
few small belts of limestone, perhaps belonging to a
later formation. The principal soil varieties are residual
red clay, gray loam and shaly soil (the red predominat-
ing) on the uplands, some of them mixed with rock frag-
ments of various sizes, and alluvial and colluvial soils in
the valleys. They are mostly well supplied with all the
essential mineral ingredients, except that they are a lit-
tle deficient in lime. The richest upland soils seem to
be in Chambers County.

Topography and hydrography.—The topography is
maturely dissected, and all referable to normal erosion
processes, there being no ponds or subterranean drainage
such as characterize limestone regions. Away from the
immediate vicinity of the Blue Ridge all the hills in any
neighborhood usually rise to about the same level. The
ridges are as a rule a little broader and more rounded
than the valleys.

Springs are common, but all small. Branches and
creeks are well developed, there being few points in the
whole region more than half a mile from running water.
The rivers all rise within the region, or on the slopes of
the Blue Ridge, except the Coosa, which instead of con-
tinuing out to the end of its valley region and then direct-
ly across the coastal plain, like most other: Alabama riv-

68 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

ers of the same class, turns nearly at a right angle to its
former course, leaves the comparatively soft Paleozoic
rocks, and cuts across the western end of the Piedmont
region for a distance of about fifty miles, resuming its
original direction immediately upon crossing the fall-line
at Wetumpka.

All the rivers and creeks are full of rocky shoals
(which are being utilized more and more for water-
power), and are navigable only for skiffs or other small
boats. The larger streams are muddy most of the time,
and fluctuate considerably, but they were undoubtedly
clearer and more constant before so much of the forest
was cut away.

Climate.—The climatological data for Goodwater and
Opelika show that the average temperature of this part
of Alabama is about 63°, and the length of the growing
season about 235 days. The average precipitation is
about 52 inches, and winter and spring are a little wetter
than summer and fall, as in all the regions previously
discussed.

Forest types.—The principal forest types are dry
woods on the ridges, rich woods on north slopes and
in ravines, wet woods along branches, and strips of river-
bank trees on the larger streams. The driest soils have
the largest proportion of pines. Long-leaf pine seems to
be entirely absent from the central portion of Chambers
County, but becomes more and more abundant with in-
creasing distance from that center of rich soil.

Fire is frequent in the long-leaf pine forests, as usual,
moderately so among the short-leaf pines, and rare in
other types of forest.

LIST OF TREES.

12-10 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |/Poorest soils

8-10 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine |Various situations

10-8 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine |Dry woods

0-0 Taxodium distichum Cypress Along rivers near
fall-line

0-0 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Rocky places
mostly

3-2 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods

2-1 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick- |Dry woods

ory

5. PIEDMONT REGION. 69

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

1 1 1
Ree Dp

Sp Cor Co a
oOnwnwor

ite lift
OoOrcordd

Sow OoONR ES

cle Ws. eel
ooocorw, a

1 1 1
meow;

i

ee nee
Oe oa oos > Nok ©

1 !
worm ONSHE

WwNoow oro orFeoooe Le

Salix nigra Willow ‘Banks of streams
Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Near streams
Ostrya Virginiana ‘Ravines and bluffs
Betula nigra Birch Along creeks and
| rivers
Fagus grandifolia Beech ‘Rich woods
Castanea dentata Chestnut Slopes
Quercus alba White oak . |Richer soils
Quercus stellata ‘Post oak ‘Dry woods
Quercus Prinus Chestnut oak Rocky slopes
Quercus Michauxii ‘Swamp chest- Bottoms
nut oak |
Quercus falcata Red oak Dry woods
. Quercus velutina Black oak Dry woods
Quercus rubra /Ravines
Quercus coccinea Spanish oak ‘Dry woods
Quercus Catesbaei | \Dry hills, Elmore
County
Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak |Driest soils
Quercus cinerea Poor soils, south-
ern edge
Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
Quercus laurifolia | |
Quercus Phellos Willow oak Bottoms
Ulmus alata Elm
Morus rubra Mulberry Rich woods and
| banks
Magnolia glauca [Bay Wet woods
Magnolia tripetala . Cucumber tree |Ravines, etc.
Magnolia macrophylla Cucumber tree Ravines and bluffs
Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar ‘Ravines, wet
| | woods, ete.
Persea pubescens ‘Red bay Wet woods
Sassafras variifolium Sassafras
Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Various situations
Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along creeks and
rivers
Amelanchier Canadensis|Service-berry |Rich woods
Crataegus spathulata Haw Dry woods
Crataegus viridis Haw Bottoms
Prunus serotina Wild. cherry Ravines and cliffs
Cercis Canadensis Redbud
Robinia Pseudacacia Black locust Rich woods, north-
ward
Ilex opaca Holly Ravines, ete.
lex decidua Bottoms
Acer leucoderme Sugar maple Ravines and bluffs
Acer saccharinum Silver maple (Banks of Coosa
River
Acer rubrum Red maple Wet woods
Acer Negundo River-banks
Tilia heterophylla? Lin River-banks

Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

70 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

2-2 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Various situations
2-2. Oxydendron arboreum_ |Sourood Bluffs, ete.
0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon
0-0 Halesia Carolina Rich woods
0-0 Halesia diptera River-banks,
southward
1-1 Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf Bluffs, ete.
2-1 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich woods
0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa River-banks
1-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw Dry ang rich
woods

About 35% of the trees in the original forests seem to
have been evergreen.

Population, amount of woodland, etc.—In 1910 this re-
gion had about 40 inhabitants to the square mile, an in-
crease of a little over 10% in ten years. About two-
thirds of the population is white. About half, perhaps
as much as 60%, of the area is still wooded, the propor-
tion varying considerably in different counties, however.
Clay and Coosa Counties probably have the greatest
amount of woodland and Chambers and Lee the least.
Until recently cattle had free range in the more hilly sec-
tions, but now the stock law seems to prevail throughout.

Forest utilization.—The three pines, the hickories, the
white and post oaks and poplar, have been cut a good
deal for lumber and other purposes, but the other trees
have not been disturbed much except by the farmers.
The naval stores industry, which seems to have invaded
this area only since the beginning of the present century
(no doubt somewhat to the astonishment of the natives
of this long-settled region), threatens still further dam-
age to the long-leaf pine unless the most approved meth-
ods are used; which however is being done in most
places, apparently. About 4% of the state’s wood-using
industries are located in this region or on its borders.
The principal forest products seem to be as follows:

Short-leaf and long-leaf pine lumber, and various finished prod-
ucts thereof.

Post oak cross-ties.

2oplar lumber, also logs exported whole.

5. PIEDMONT REGION. 71

Naval stores.

‘Doors, sash, blinds, columns.
Chestnut poles.

Furniture.

Hickory handles.

Charcoal (decreasing).

oney.
Poplar bark horse-collars.
Hickory nuts and chestnuts.

The Southern Lumberman enumerates 46 sawmills in
this region, with an average capacity of 7,300 feet a day,
and 7 other wood-working establishments, which seems
an underestimate. The low average capacity is doubtless
correlated with the discontinuity of the ferests. Thirty-
one of the mills cut long-leaf pine, 21 short-leaf, 2 “white
pine” (whatever that may mean), 2 cypress, 4 hickory,
2 beech, 18 white oak, 15 red oak, 16 poplar, 5 sweet
gum, and 2 ash. None of the mills located within the re-
gion seem to be large enough to operate tram-roads, but
near the Coosa River a few tram-roads belonging to
larger mills in other regions penetrate this one for short
distances.

=]
bo

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

THE COASTAL PLAIN (Regions 6-15).

6. The Central Pine Belt.

Extending in a gentle curve from a little south of the
middle of the eastern border of the state to the north-
western corner, and widening out considerably to the
northwestward, is what may be appropriately designated
the central pine belt. Its underlying strata, as well as
much of the surface material, are Cretaceous, mostly
fresh-water deposits, judging from the absence of ma-
rine fossils. Three divisions of it are recognizable,
though not very sharply defined, namely, the short-leaf
and long-leaf pine and Eutaw belts.

A. Short-leaf Pine Belt.
(Figures 25-27.)

This covers about 5,100 square miles in Alabama, and
extends northwestward into Mississippi. Eastward it
narrows rapidly, but there are indications of the same
sort of country bordering the fall-line in Georgia and
Maryland.

References.—Harper 5, McCalley 2 (19-22, 40-51, 75-
80, 102-109, 125-127), Mohr 3 (529), Mohr 6 (95-96),
Mohr 8 (90, 96-97), Smith 6 (47-51, 118-127), Smith 7
(243-252, 433-459), Smith 8 (67, 307-344, 349, 529-532,
536, 540-542, 545-546, 559-560), Smith 9 (113-123).

Geology and soils.—The strata of this belt are of the
Tuscaloosa formation, and present quite a variety of ap-
pearances in cuts and gullies, including regularly strati-
fied gray clays, cross-bedded pink and yellow sands, and
clay mottled in various colors and patterns, some red and
white, some liver-colored, and some mouse-colored. The
clay on exposure often becomes intersected by a network
of fine cracks a fraction of an inch apart, giving an ap-

6A. SHORT-LEAF PINE BELT. 73

pearance which is very characteristic of this formation
and almost peculiar to it. In many places the formation
is full of pebbles, mostly well-rounded quartz pebbles
eastward and sub-angular chert pebbles northwestward.
Layers of ferruginous sandstone, usually approximately
horizontal but often irregular, and varying from about a
quarter of an inch to several inches in thickness, are
common, especially on and near the surface of the
ground. Where the formation has been long exposed to
weathering almost all phases of it may pass into a dull
reddish loam, very similar to the Lafayette, a superficial
formation which is found in all parts of the coastal plain.

The .Lafayette is undoubtedly present also over large
areas of this region. Artificial sections of it along rail-
roads, ete., are of course chiefly confined to uplands, and
its usual appearance there is a brick-red loam, very
homogeneous and usually not over ten feet in thickness,
with smooth surfaces intersected by a network of very
shallow cracks usually a foot or two apart. In roadside
ditches on slopes “pot-holes” from about a foot to a yard
in diameter and about the same in depth are very char-
acteristic of this formation. Rounded ferruginous con-
cretions from a fraction of an inch to a few inches in di-
ameter abound in some places, especially on the surface.
Little is known about the character of the Lafayette for-
mation where it lies below the level of ground-water, but
in such situations its red color must be lacking, if noth-
ing else.

Both the Tuscaloosa and Lafayette formations are
likely to be rather sandy near the surface, especially on
level ground. The soils derived from them consist of
varying proportions of clay and sand (the sand being
most prevalent eastward), and are somewhat deficient in
lime and potash.

Topography and hydrography.—In Franklin County
the uplands of this region are about 1,000 feet above sea-
level, which seems to be the greatest elevation recorded
in any part of the coastal plain. The lowest altitude in
the short-leaf pine belt is a little less than 100 feet, along
the Warrior River. The topography varies from nearly
level—particularly on the high terraces or third bottoms

74 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

of the larger rivers, and on uplands remote from streams
—to rather hilly, and is all due to normal erosion. The
streams are of all sizes, from the numerous small clear
branches to the large muddy rivers which rise in the
mineral region and cross this belt almost at right angles.
Most of them are -bordered by more or less swamp.
Springs are fairly common, but all small.

Climate.—The average temperature is about 63°, the
length of the growing season (which of course varies
considerably with latitude) from about 295 to 240 days,
and the average annual rainfall about 50 inches. The
summers are about as dry here as in the Tennessee val-
ley, or even drier in the northwestern portion. The cli-
matological data for Tuscaloosa, given in the table, prob-
ably represent the average for the whole region pretty
well.

Forest types.—These include dry pine, oak and hickory
woods on the uplands, richer woods with beech, white
oak, sweet gum, etc., on bluffs and in ravines or valleys,
non-alluvial swamps along the smaller streams, small
areas of muddy alluvial swamp near some of the rivers,
and the usual river-bank vegetation. Fires are rare in
the valleys but moderately frequent on the uplands, es-
pecially where the long-leaf pine grows.

LIST OF TREES.

5-4 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Poorest soils
20-20 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Nearly everywhere
0-0 Pinus serotina Black pine |Non-alluvial
| Swamps

10-6 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Dry woods
1-1 Taxodinm distichum Cypress Alluvial swamps
0-0 Juglans nigra Black walnut Richest soils
0-0 Hicoria aquatica Alluvial swamps
0-0 Hicoria ovata Scaly-bark

hickory Rich soils
2-1 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
1-0 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick-

ory Dry woods
2-3 Salix nigra Willow Along streams
0-0 Populus deltoides Cottonwood Along creeks and

rivers

1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Low grounds
1-1 Ostrya Virginiana Bluffs, ete.

_

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ere Te
ooocoow

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6A. SHORT-LEAF PINE BELT. 75

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

Betula nigra

Fagus grandifolia
Castanea dentata
Castanea pumila
Quercus alba

Quercus stellata
Quercus lyrata
Quercus Prinus
Quercus Muhlenbergii
Quercus Michauxii

Quercus falcata
Quercus pagodaefolia
Quercus velutina
Quercus rubra
Quercus coccinea
Quercus Catesbaei
Quercus Marylandica
Quercus cinerea
Quercus nigra
Quercus laurifolia

Quercus Phellos
Ulmus Americana
Ulmus alata
Planera aquatica

Celtis occidentalis
Morus rubra
Magnolia glauca

Magnolia acuminata
Magnolia tripetala
Magnolia pyramidata
Magnolia macrophylla

|
‘Birch

Beech
‘Chestnut

Chinquapin
White oak
Post oak

Chestnut oak

‘Swamp chest-

nut oak
Red oak

Black oak

Spanish oak

Black-jack oak

Water oak

‘Willow oak

Elm
Elm

Hackberry
Mulberry
Bay

Cucumber tree
Cucumber tree
i;Cucumber
Cucumber tree

Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar

Asimina triloba
Persea pubescens

Sassafras variifolium

Pawpaw
Red bay

Sassafras

Liquidambar Styracifiua|Sweet gum

Platanus occidentalis

Amelanchier Canadensis

Crataegus spathulata
Crataegus viridis
Prunus serotina
Cercis Canadensis

Gleditschia triacanthos

Cyrilla racemifiora
Tlex opaca

Ilex decidua

Acer Floridanum

Sycamore

Service-berry
Haw

Haw

Wild cherry
Redbud
Honey locust

Sugar maple

tree

Along creeks and

| rivers

Bluffs and bottoms
Hillsides

Dry woods
‘Various situations
Dry woods
River-bottoms
Ravines and bluffs

‘Bottoms
\Dry uplands
‘Bottoms
‘Dry woods
\Ravines and bluffs
‘Dry uplands
Poorest soils
‘Driest soils
‘Poorest soils
Low grounds
Sandy banks of
streams
Bottoms

Banks of Warrior
River

River-banks, ete.

Richer soils

|Non-alluvial
swamps

/Rich woods

/Rich woods

Rich woods

\Bluffs, ete.

Ravines and bluffs

|'Bottoms

Non-alluvial
swamps

Various situations

Along creeks and
rivers

Bluffs, ete.

|!Dry woods

‘Bottoms

Bluffs, ete.

Creek swamps
Ravines and bluffs
River-bottoms
Bottoms, ete.

76 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.
LIST OF TREES—Continued.

0-0 Acer saccharinum Silver maple /River-banks

3-4 Acer rubrum Red maple Non-alluvial
swamps

0-1 Acer Negundo River-banks, etc.

0-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin Bluffs, etc.

3-3 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

1-1 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Various situations

1-2 Nyssa biflora Black gum Non-alluvial
swamps.

1-1 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum Sloughs, ete.

1-1 Oxydendron arboreum |Sourwood Bluffs, ete.

0-0 Bumelia lycioides

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon ‘Old fietds mostly

0-0 Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf \Valleys and bluffs

0-0 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich soils

0-0 Fraxinus Carcliniana Ash Swamps

0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa ‘River-banks

0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw ‘Dry woods

This region, although belonging strictly to the

coastal plain geologically, has a good deal in common
with the hill country in its vegetation. Some of its trees
are more characteristic of one section and some of the
other; and it seems to have a greater variety of trees
than any other region into which the state is here di-
vided. There are at least 17 kinds of oak, though some
of them are rather rare here. About 44% of the trees in
the original forests were evergreen; which is a higher
percentage than we have found anywhere in the hill
country (except in the Blue Ridge), though rather low
for the coastal plain.

Density of population, etc.—In 1910 the short-leaf pine
belt had about 30 inhabitants to the square mile, an in-
crease of 22% in the ten years preceding. Just about
75% of the inhabitants are white. The region is still
pretty well wooded, probably to the extent of about 75%
of its area. Cattle had free range in nearly all parts up.
to within a few years, but now the stock law is in force
in several counties and beats. ;

Forest utilization—Although the pines have been cut
a good deal for lumber, the commoner short-leaf (Pinus
Taeda) has probably more than held its own, on account
of its propensity for spreading in old fields and other

6A. SHORT-LEAF PINE BELT. vi |

clearings. About 20% of the sawmills and 15% of the
other wood-working industries of the state are located in
this region, which has only 9.8% of the total area. The
Southern Lumberman enumerates 120 mills, with an av-
erage capacity of 15,000 feet a day. Nine of these mills
operate tram-roads, with an aggregate length of 57 miles.
Fifty-five of them report long-leaf pine and three white
pine, but these figures must be exaggerated, for several
of the mills reporting long-leaf pine are located in coun-
ties where that species is unknown, and none of the trees
which might pass for white pine are known to grow in
this region at all. Of course some of these two woods
may be imported, but that does not seem reasonable in a
region so abundantly supplied with timber. Ninety-
eight mills cut short-leaf pine, 6 cypress, 16 hickory, 6
beech, 51 white oak (etc.), 41 red oak (etc.), 2 elm, 67
poplar, 30 sweet gum, 10 tupelo gum, and 3 ash. Those
mills which cut 25,000 feet or more in a day are usually
provided with a waste-burner, a device very rarely seen
in the hill country. Only six cut as much as 50,000 feet
a day, and two or three of those get part of their timber
from other regions. The principal forest products seem
to be as follows:

Short-leaf and long-leaf pine lumber.
Post oak and pine cross-ties.

Sash, doors, blinds.

Cooperage stock.

White oak baskets and chair-bottoms.
Sweet gum and black gum columns.

Chestnut and cypress poles.

Pine and poplar shingles.

Charcoal.

Honey.

7S ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

B. (Central) Long-leaf Pine Hills.
(Figures 28-30.)

The boundaries of this belt are so vague that its area
cannot be estimated with accuracy, but it is probably
about 850 square miles. Besides the area shown on the
map there are several patches of almost precisely similar
country a few square miles in extent in the eastern part
of Tuscaloosa County within a few miles of Brookwood,
where the underlying rocks are Coal Measures. Al-
though this belt does not extend beyond the borders of
the state, it has a good deal in common with the fall-line
sand-hills of Georgia and the Carolinas. Westward it
has no counterpart.

References.—Reed (44-68), Smith 8 (349, 541, 545-
546). Also U.S. soil surveys of Hale, Bibb, Perry and
Autauga Counties.

Geology and soils—The strata of this belt are all of
the Tuscaloosa formation, and vary from pink and yellow
cross-bedded loamy sands to mottled white and purple
clays, with the various phases often passing into each
other in short distances horizontally. The liver-colored
and mouse-colored clays with their fine network of
cracks, described under the short-leaf pine belt, seem to
be wanting here. The summits of many of the hills are
capped with ledges of horizontally bedded blackish fer-
ruginous sandstone, which are doubtless only local in-
durations. Thin plates and fragments of the same kind
of rock and of shiny brown limonite are strewn profusely
over many of the higher slopes. The Lafayette forma-
tion, if it exists in this belt, is less typical than elsewhere.
The soils are mainly sandy, and deficient in lime.

Topography and hydrography.—This belt is pretty-
hilly, for the coastal plain, and almost mountainous in
Tuscaloosa County, where some of the hilltops are prob-
ably at least 250 feet above valleys less than half a mile
distant. The valleys are rather narrow, and sometimes
ravine-like. The northeastern or inland edge of this belt
makes a sort of escarpment which can be seen from the
Mobile & Ohio R. R. nearly all the way from Duncanville

6B. LONG-LEAF PINE HILLS. 79

in Tuscaloosa County to Trio in Bibb, a distance of about
30 miles. Streams are fairly numerous, but mostly
small, and many of the smaller valleys are dry a large
part of the time. The water in the ground and in the
streams is above the average in purity, and it does not
seem to fluctuate much. Where the M. & O. R. R. passes
through this belt in Chilton and Autauga Counties it has
at least two water-tanks fed automatically by pumps op-
erated by breast-wheels located on small creeks.

A minor topographic feature which reaches its inland
limit in this kind of country is the salamander hills,
small mounds of sand thrown up in long-leaf pine forests
(especially soon after fires in winter and spring) by the
salamander, a subterranean rodent which lives in sandy
soils in the coastal plain from the Warrior River east-
ward to the Savannah.*

Forest types.—Reed, in his excellent description of a
part of this region, recognizes only two types of forest,
the long-leaf pine type on the hills and the creek type in
the valleys. Each could be subdivided somewhat, how-
ever, especially the last, for streams of different sizes are
usually bordered by different kinds of swamp vegetation.
Fire is frequent in the long-leaf pine land.

LIST OF TREES.

30-20 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |Hills
10-12 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine | Valleys
0-0 Pinus serotina Black pine Sandy swamps
5-6 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine |Hil!s
0-0 Pinus Virginiana Sterile hills, Tusca-
loosa County
1-0 Hicoria alba Hickory Slepes
0-0 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick-
ory Slopes
0-1 Salix nigra Willow Aleng creeks
0-0 Carpinus Caroliniana /|Ironwood Along creeks
0-0 Fagus grandifolia Beech Valleys
1-0. Castanea dentata Chestnut Slopes
2-1 Quercus alba White oak Valleys
1-1 Quercus stellata Post oak Slopes
1-2 Quercus Margaretta Post oak Ridges
1-1 Quercus Prinus Chestnut oak /Slopes
3-4 Quercus falcata Red oak ‘Ridges and slopes

*See Science [1.35:115-119, Jan. 19, 1912.

80 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

0-0 Quercus velutina Black oak Hills
5-7 Quercus Catesbaei Turkey oak Ridges
7-8 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak/Hills
4-5 Quercus cinerea Upland willow
oak Hills -
2-2 Quercus nigra Water oak Aleng creeks
4-5 Magnolia glauca Bay Along branches, etc.
0-0 Magnolia tripetala Cucumber tree|Ravines
1-1 Magnolia macrophylla |Cucumber tree|Valleys
3-3 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Valleys
0-0 Persea pubescens Red bay Along branches
1-2 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Valleys
0-1 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Along creeks
1-1 Ilex opaca Holly Valleys
2-3 Acer rubrum (Red) maple |Along branches
3-3 Cornus florida Dogwood Hills
1-1 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Slopes
2-2 Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
1-2. Oxydendronarboreum (|Sourwood Slopes
0-0 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon

In the original forests about 52% of the trees were
evergreen, most of which figure was made up of long-leaf
pine. There are more species of oak in proportion to
other trees here than in most other parts of the state.

‘Economic features.—This belt is so narrow that it is
difficult to form any estimate of its population. Culti-
vated tracts are mostly confined to the valleys, and
probably do not exceed 13% of the area. Open range for
cattle seems to be the rule. A great deal of the long-leaf
pine and some of the two short-leaf pines has been cut
for lumber, but there has not been much demand yet for
the other trees. In this belt, particularly in Chilton
and Autauga Counties, are quite a number of large and
more or less permanent sawmills, each with a pond and
a waste-burner, a type more frequent in the southern
parts of the state. The large mill of the Kaul Lumber
Co., recently erected near Tuscaloosa, derives its timber
from this belt, transporting it by rail across the short-
leaf pine belt for about 15 miles. The principal forest
products are lumber and naval stores.

According to the Southern Lumberman there are 18
sawmills in this region or very close to it, with an aver-
age capacity of 40,000 feet a day (which is not exceeded

6C. EUTAW BELT. 81

by any other region in the state). The total capacity is
larger in proportion to area and population than in any
other region, except—in the case of population—no. 14,
which is practically uninhabited. Six of the mills oper-
ate tram-roads, aggregating 108 miles in length, but
most of these pass through other regions as well. At
the same time there is no telling how many logs from
this region are hauled out to mills elsewhere.

C. The Eutaw Belt.

This takes its name indirectly from the town of
Eutaw, the county-seat of Greene County. It is a nar-
row belt, more easily defined geologically than geograph-
ically, bordering the short-leaf pine belt on the south-
west. It covers about 1,500 square miles in Alabama,
and extends without much change into Georgia and Mis-
sissippi.

References.—Bartram (388-398?), Lyell (87-41),
Smith 8 (290-303, 321, 350, and several county descrip-
tions).

Geology and soils.—This belt coincides with the out-
crop of the Eutaw formation, a division of the Cretace-
ous lying next above the Tuscaloosa. The formation con-
sists mostly of laminated clays and cross-bedded sands,
and the latter are more or less glauconitic and phos-
phatic. The Lafayette red loam seems to cover the
greater part of the area, however, as in most other parts
of the coastal plain. The soils are similar to those of the
short-leaf pine belt, but a little richer, on the average,
owing no doubt to the greater amount of potassium and
phosphorus in the formation.

Topography and hydrography.—The topography does
not differ much from that of region 6A. Although rather
less hilly, on the whole, there is along Autauga Creek at
Prattville an inland-facing escarpment about 200 feet
high, which when viewed from a mile or two to the
northeastward looks like a small mountain.

In proportion to area this region has more creeks and
rivers than the other two divisions of the central pine

6G

&2 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

belt. The same rivers which cross them also cross this,
and the Tombigbee, Alabama and Tallapoosa flow length-
wise of it for some distance.

Climate.—Montgomery is pretty centrally located in
this region, and some climatic data for that place can be
found in Appendix B.

Forest types.—Th? forest types are also so similar to
those of the short-leaf pine belt that it is hardly worth
while to describe them. The relative abundance of the
trees is somewhat different, though, as will appear from
the following list:

LIST OF TREES.

4-3 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |Poorest soils

15-12 Pinus 'l'aeda Short-leaf pine serena ci distrib-
ute

6-4 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Dry woods

1-1 Pinus glabra Spruce pine Elmore Co. and
eastward

2-3 Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps

0-0 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar

1-1 Hicoria aquatica Alluvial swamps

2-1 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods

2-3 Salix nigra Willow Along streams

1-1 Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks, ete.

0-0 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Low grounds

1-2 Betulanigra Birch Along streams

4-4 Fagus grandifolia Beech Ravines, etc.

1-0 Castanea dentata Chestnut

0-0 Castanea pumila Chinquapin Dry woods

2-1 Quercus alba White oak Moderately rich
soils

3-2 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry soils

1-2 Quercus lyrata Swamp post oak Muddy swamps

1-1 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest-

nut oak Bottoms

3-4 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry woods

0-0 Quercus pagodaefolia River hottoms

0-0 Quercus velutina ‘Black oak Dry woods

2-1 Quercus coccinea Spanish oak Dry woods

0-1 Quercus Catesbaei Turkey oak Sendiest soils

1-1 Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Driest soils

0-1 Quercus cinerea Poorest soils

5-4 Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds

2-2 Quercus laurifolia Sandy banks, ete.

3-3 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Bottoms, ete.

1-0 Ulmusalata Elm Low grounds

0-0 Planera aquatica River-banks

0-0

Celtis occidentalis Hackberry River-banks

6C. EUTAW BELT. 83

LIST OF TREES—Continued.

2-1 Morus rubra Mulberry ‘Bottoms, ete.
1-1 Magnolia grandiflora ‘Magnolia Hammocks, south-
silienls eastward

5-6 Magnolia glauca Bay |Non-alluvial
swamps

5-4 Liriodendron Trlipifera Poplar 'Ravines, ete.

0-0 Sassafras variifolium (Sassafras

7-7 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum peyrally distrib-
ute

2-3 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along creeks and

| rivers

0-0 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Creek swamps

2-2 Ilex cpaca Holly ‘Ravines, etc.

2-2 Acer saccharinum Silver maple River-banks

2-3 Acer rubrum (Red) maple Non-alluvial
swamps

0-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin

2-1 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

1-1 Nyssa biflora Black gum Non-alluvial
swamps

1-2 Nyssa uniflora Tupelo gum sloughs, ete.

1-1 Oxydendron arboreum sourwood Ravines, ete.

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon

0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa River-banks

About 39% of the trees in the original forests were
evergreen, a somewhat smaller proportion than in the
other parts of the central pine belt, as might have been
expected from the richer soil. There are two interesting
trees in this belt which are not found in any of those
previously described, namely the spruce pine, Pinus gla-
bra, and the magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora. Both are
very characteristic of hammocks* nearer the coast, and

*“Hammock” is a geographical term used only in the coastal
plain (more in Florida than anywhere else) to designate a dense
stand of trees other than pines, growing in comparatively dry soil
(and thus distinguished from a swamp) in a region where open
grassy pine forests predominate. Most hammocks are shady and
have some natural protection against fire on one or more sides,
and therefore contain considerable humus. (See Ann. Rep. Fla.
Geol. Surv. 3:217; Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38:515-525. 1911.)

The word has also been spelled hamak, hommock and hummock;
the last-named form, which may have originated in a mere typo-
graphical error, having caused a great deal of misunderstanding.
(See Science I1.22:400-402. Sept. 29, 1905. Its use in Dr. Smith’s
two contributions to the 6th volume of the Tenth Census was prob-
ably due to the interference of some editor in Washington.) The
matter has however been set right in “Webster’s New Interna-
tional Dictionary,” 1909, and other dictionaries will probably fall
into line sooner or later.

84 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

reach their inland limits a few miles north of Mont-
gomery.

Economic features.—The population of this region is
doubtless denser than in most other parts of the central
pine belt, but about two-thirds of the area seems to be
still wooded; perhaps not more than half with virgin for-
est, though. The virgin forest is chiefly confined to
swamps and bottoms. The forest products are much the
same as in the short-leaf pine belt. The region is fairly
well supplied with railroads and navigable rivers.

For this belt the Southern Lumberman lists 22 saw-
mills, with an average capacity of 13,600 feet a day, and
7 other wood-working establishments, most of the latter
located in Montgomery. Ten of the mills cut long-leaf
pine, 15 short-leaf, one “spruce” (Pinus glabra?), 2 cy-
press, 3 hickory, 2 beech, 8 white oak, 5 red oak, 10 pop-
lar, 5 sweet gum, 3 tupelo gum, and 2 ash.

7. The Black Belt.
(Figures 35-39.)

This well-defined region, also known as the cane-brake
or prairie region, embracing about 4,300 square miles in
Alabama, extends northwestward through Mississippi
and a short distance into West Tennessee, making a cres-
cent-shaped area. There is nothing at all resembling it
anywhere farther east, but there is some very similar
country in southwestern Arkansas and eastern Texas.

References.—Bartram (398-400?), Gosse, Hale, Lyell
(41-42, 75-76), Mohr 8 (97-105) *, McGuire, Smith 6 (55-
58, 68, 128-140), Smith 7 (265-272, 295, 459-492), Smith
8 (276-285, 350-352, and county descriptions), Smith 9
(13, 131-132, 144,.191), Tuomey 1. (122-137,. 140-142);
Tuomey 2 (134-135, 234-236; the last by E. Q. Thorn-
ton), Webb.

Geology and soils.—This region coincides exactly with
the outcrop of the Selma Chalk (formerly called Rotten
Limestone) one of the Cretaceous formations. The rock
is a soft gray argillaceous limestone, remarkably uniform

*This also covers regions 6C and 8.

7. THE BLACK BELT. 85

in composition throughout its whole extent and thick-
ness. It weathers into a gray clay of exceptional fertil-
ity but somewhat difficult to cultivate, because it bakes
hard in summer and becomes a very tenacious mud in
winter. Chemical analyses of this soil made under Dr.
Smith’s direction at the time of the Tenth Census show
1 to 2% of lime, 0.20—0.44% of potash, and 0.10—
0.51% of phosphoric acid. When the region was first
settled much of the soil contained so much organic mat-
ter that it was almost black, contrasting with the red
soils of neighboring regions, whence the name “black
belt.” The Lafayette red loam is rather sparsely repre-
sented in this region, but where it does occur it usually
makes hills, being less easily eroded and dissolved than
the Rotten Limestone. Within a few miles of the Ala-
bama River in Lowndes and Dallas Counties a considera-
ble area is covered with sand which may be even more re-
cent than the Lafayette. (The sand-hills near Montgom-
ery, mentioned on page 105 of Dr. Mohr’s last book, but
apparently not identified by previous or subsequent ex-
plorers, may be of a similar nature.)

The soils of the black belt have been described so fully
in the publications above cited, and in some of the gov-
ernment soil surveys, that it is hardly necessary to give
any more details about them here.

Topography and hydrography.—The Selma Chalk or
Rotten Limestone differs from most other limestones in
Alabama in that it is almost never hard enough to form
steep hills, or pure enough to be dissolved by percolating
waters so as to form lime-sinks, caves, subterranean
streams and big springs, which are characteristic of so
many limestone regions. The prevailing topography is
gently undulating, in a manner difficult to describe,
though probably due almost wholly to normal erosion
processes. Some parts of the region, mostly remote from
the rivers, are so level that the railroads have built sev-
eral tangents (i. e., straight tracks) a dozen miles or
more in length.

In the spots where the Lafayette sandy loam occurs
there has been less erosion than elsewhere, and the con-
ical hills formed by this feature have been described by

§6 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Tuomey and several subsequent writers. The rivers
which traverse the reg’on are bordered in most places
by steep bare chalk bluffs of striking appearance.
Swamps are comparatively infrequent. The rivers and
creeks fluctuate considerably with the seasons, and are
muddy most of the time. Small streams are rather
scarce, especially in dry weather, and the ground-water
lies at such a depth that shallow dug wells are not used
much. The inhabitants who cannot afford artesian wells
generally use cisterns. 1

Climate.—The climate of this region is well illustrated
by the statistics for Uniontown and Selma. The average
temperature is about 65° (which is just right for human
comfort), and the growing season about 240 days. The
annual rainfall averages about 49 inches, most of it com-
ing in winter and spring, as in the regions previously de-
scribed. .

Forest types.—It is stated by several writers that
when this region was first visited by white men there
were many naturally treeless areas scattered over it; a
circumstance from which one of its names is derived.
But the greater part of the area has been under cultiva-
tion so long that it is well-nigh impossible to get any di-
rect evidence of the location and extent of the treeless
areas at the present time. The patches of Lafayette
loam were pretty well wooded with short-leaf pines, post
oaks, ete., and many of these forests still remain almost
undisturbed, because the soil of such spots is considered
so much less valuable than the residual calcareous soils
near by. The other remaining forests are chiefly con-
fined to the bottoms of creeks and rivers, and they in-
clude a considerable variety of useful hardwood trees.

Fires are rare in this region now, Dut may have been
more frequent originally, and may have had something
to do with the existence of the treeless spots, somewhat
as in the case of the better known prairies of the Missis-
sippi valley; which by the way resemble the region un-
der consideration a good deal in soil, topography, herba-
ceous vegetation and crops, though very different geo-
logically.

_

i 1 1
modo He

orp ews

C9 he
Nr oO el

NOADWNOSORE EDD
BPOTRP RR OMRWwWWwIY

Lie US ed ee ee is ie ee Rn
RRR OOOWR OR NONFREOF FF e

SCSONMNONBRKR POR OCR OF RFE CD

7. THE BLACK BELT. 87

LIST OF TREES.

Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |Sand in Lowndes
& Dallas Counties
Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Pocrer soils
Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Lafayette patches
Pinus glabra White or spruce
: pine ‘Second bottoms, etc.
Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps and sloughs
Juniperus Virginiana Cedar ‘Chalk outcrops
| mostly
Juglans nigra Walnut Richest soils
Hicoria aquatica Along rivers
Hicoria ovata Sealy-bark |
hickory Bottoms, ete.
Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods .
Salix nigra Willow Along streams
Populus deltoides Cottonwood \Along streams
Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood ‘Low grounds
Ostrya Virginiana
Betula nigra Birch ‘Banks of streams
Fagus grandifolis Beech Second bottoms, etc.
Quercus alba White oak Various situations
Quercus stellata ‘Post oak Lafayette patches
Quercts Margaretta - Post oak Sand, Dallas Co.
Quercus Durandii ‘Caleareous soils
Quercus lyrata Swamp post |
oak ‘Bottom lands
Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest- |
nut oak Bottom lands
Quercus Schneckii Bottom lands
Quercus falcata \Red oak Lafayette patches
Quercus pagodaefolia ‘Bottom lands
Quercus Catesbaei ‘With long-leaf pine
Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Lafayette patches
Quercus cinerea With long-leaf pine
Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds
Quercus laurifclia Sandy banks
Quercus Phellos Willow oak ‘Low grounds
Ulmus Americana Elm Bottoms, ete.
Ulmus alata Elm ‘Oak groves, ete.
Ulmus fulva Slippery elm Rich soils
Planera aquatica |River-banks
Celtis occidentalis \Hackberry Bottoms, ete.
Morus rubra Mulberry ‘Bottoms, etc.
Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Second bottoms
Magnolia glauca Bay Sandy swamps in
| Lowndes and
Dallas Counties
Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Non-calcareovs soils
Persea Borbonia Red bay Second bottoms, etc.
Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Varicus situations
Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Alorg creeks and
rivers

Amelanchier Canadensis 'Service-berry

§8 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA. ©

LIST OF TREES.—Continued.

0-0 Crataegus spathulata Haw Dry woods
0-0 Crataegus Crus-galli Haw Caleareous soils
0-0 Crataegus viridis Haw Bottoms
1-0 Prunus Americana Wild plum Rich soils
0-0 Prunus Caroliniana Second bottoms
2-1 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Dry woods
0-0 Xanthoxylum Clava-
Herculis Chalk bluffs
0-0 Ilex opaca Holly Second bottoms
0-0 Acer Floridanum Sugar maple |Second bottoms
0-1 Acer saccharinum Silver maple |River-banks
0-1 Acer rubrum Red maple Non-alluvial
, swamps
0-0 Acer Negundo Along creeks and
rivers
2-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin Second bottoms, ete.
1-1 Cornus florida Dogwood Lafayette patches
0-0 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Dry woods
0-1 Nyssa biflora Black gum Non-alluvial
swamps
0-1 Nyssa unifiora Tupelo gum Sloughs
0-0 Bumelia lanuginosa Along Catoma
Creek, ete.
0-0 Bumelia lycioides Limestone outcrops
; mostly
1-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon Various situations
0-0 Halesia diptera Second bottoms
4-2 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich soils
0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa Creek banks
0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw ‘Second bottoms

Only about 19% of these trees are evergreen, which
is a very low proportion for the coastal plain, and proba-
bly correlated with the abundance of lime and potash in
the soil of this region. The proportion of evergreens
seems to be greatest in the eastern half, where the sum-
mers are a little wetter; and it probably ranges from
about 15% in Sumter County to 25% in Macon.

Population, etc.—Several of the oldest towns in the
state, most of them county-seats, are located on slightly
higher ground just outside of the black belt, but close
enough to it to be markets for much of its produce.
Among these are Eutaw, Greensboro, Marion, Montgom-
ery and Tuskegee on the north, and Livingston, Fort
Deposit and Union Springs on the south. This circum-
stance, in the absence of statistics for areas smaller

7. THE BLACK BELT. 89

than counties, makes it difficult to estimate the popula-
tion of the region accurately, but there seems to have
been in 1910 about 49 inhabitants to the square mile,
most of them negroes.

As in many other essentially agricultural regions with
a similar density of population (e. g., parts of Middle
Georgia, Middle Tennessee and Illinois, and most of Iowa
and Missouri), the population decreased a little in the
decade just past. The towns grew, but this was more
than offset by the decrease in the rural districts. The
principal reason for this state of affairs seems to be that
the soil of such areas is so fertile that nearly all the ara-
ble land was taken up long ago, and as the farmers be-
come more efficient with the increase of agricultural
knowledge, improvement of farm machinery, etc., fewer
of them are needed to cultivate a given area, and most
of their sons have to seek their fortunes in town or in
newer regions. Wherever that is the case further in-
crease of population usually comes about only through
the establishment of manufactures, as is well illustrated
in the Tennessee valley (region 1b).

Some optimists like to believe that the present “back
to the farm” agitation will soon increase the agricultural
population of all these fertile regions again, but past ex-
perience does not lend much support to such a belief. It
is easy to say that the large farms can be subdivided
and cultivated more intensively, but it has not worked
out that way in other states, except in the vicinity of
manufacturing cities.

Conditions in Alabama are somewhat different from
those in the Middle West, though. Before the use of
commercial fertilizers became common in the black belt,
say about 25 years ago, much of the soil had become
somewhat impoverished by the prolonged cultivation of
cotton, and overrun with Johnson grass and other per-
sistent weeds; and since that time the sandy soils far-
ther south, which respond generously to fertilization and
are much more easily tilled and less subject to weeds
than those of the black belt, have drawn thousands of
progressive young men in that direction, leaving a large
proportion of women, old men and negroes behind.

“80 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

(Every black belt county has now more women than
men.) On Jan. 23, 1913, the Montgomery Advertiser
had on its editorial page an interesting little note on this
movement of population, concluding with these words:
“Wiregrass lands are now worth more than the Black
Belt lands. Moreover, if the roll is called of the leading
citizens of any Wiregrass city, it will be found that a
majority of them were born in the Black Belt.” (AI-
though this may be a trifle overdrawn, or less true now
than it would have been a few years ago, essentially the
same would be true at corresponding distances from the
eoast in Georgia and Mississippi, too.)

However, several comparatively recent developments
make it hazardous to predict what the future destiny of
the black belt will be. The discovery of the cause of
malaria about 1900, the arrival of the cotton-boll weevil
a few years ago, the introduction of alfalfa and the in-
creasing tendency to diversification of crops, the cam-
paign for eradicating ticks and raising more and better
cattle, the utilization of the abundant Rotten Limestone
as the principal ingredient for Portland cement, the
building of locks for slack-water navigation on the Tom-
bigbee River, and finally the fact that some of the “wire-
grass” counties are now just about as thickly settled as
the black belt, all bring new elements into the problem.
Just when the turning-point will come it is impossible to
guess, but it is certain that the decrease of population in
the black belt cannot continue indefinitely.

Forest utilization —At the present time forests occu-
py probably not more than 25% of the area (more than
that having been devoted to cotton alone in 1880, accord-
ing to the Tenth Census,—Smith 6 in bibliography), and
this is almost the only part of the state where treeless
horizons are common. The stock law prevails through-
out, and there is now almost as much pasture as plowed
ground. The uplands were naturally cleared and culti-
vated first, as in most other parts of the state, so that
those trees confined to swamps, river-banks, ete, are
relatively more abundant now than they were originally.

Notwithstanding the limited extent of the forests,
they are still furnishing a considerable variety of useful

8. CHUNNENNUGGEE RIDGE. 91

products, such as post oak cross-ties, white oak cotton-
baskets, cooperage stock, spokes and handles, cedar
posts, and more highly elaborated articles like sash,
doors, blinds and wagons.

Having the smallest proportion of woodland it is not
surprising that this region should also have the fewest
sawmills per square mile and per inhabitant. The South-
ern Lumberman’s directory previously referred to enu-
merates 22 mills, with an average capacity of 13,400 feet
a day, and 6 other wood-working establishments. The
largest mills, one of which has a daily capacity of 40,000
feet, are located on navigable rivers, and doubtless ob-
tain much of their timber from more densely wooded re-
gions farther inland; so that if this outside timber could
be eliminated from the statistics the output of the saw-
mills would show up much smaller. Only one tram-road
is reported from the region, and that is enly two miles
long, with 35-pound rails.

Nine of the mills cut long-leaf pine, 19 short-leaf, one
“white pine” (Pinus glabra?), 5 cypress, 5 hickory, 5
cottonwood, 2 beech, 12 white oak (etc.?), 12 red oak
(etc.), 3 hackberry, 10 poplar, 10 sweet gum, 2 syca-
more, 4 tupelo gum, and 6 ash.

8. Chunnennuggee Ridge or Blue Marl Region.

Going southward from the black belt, particularly in
Bullock, Montgomery and Lowndes Counties, one as-
cends an escarpment sometimes 100 feet or more in
height (called Chunnennuggee* Ridge at Union Springs,
where it is perhaps most conspicuous), and enters a re-
gion of different aspect, extending all the way from
Georgia to Mississippi (and with:some interruptions to
West Tennessee), and covering about 2,300 square miles
in Alabama.

References.—Smith 6 (56, 58-61, 132, 135-142), Smith
7 (267-268, 273-278, 487-498), Smith 8 (352-356 and nu-

*Also spelled Chunnennugga and Chunnenugga, but the form

given above seems to be preferred locally. It is easy to imagine
how the others may have originated as typographical errors.

92 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

merous county descriptions), Smith 9 (226, 230-244),
Tuomey 2 (135-143).

Geology and soils.—This region is underlaid through-
out by the Ripley formation (uppermost Cretaceous),
whose strata vary from marly to sandy; but most of the
surface, and therefore of the soil, seems to be of the
Lafayette formation. In some parts this is the usual red
loam, but elsewhere, especially eastward, it is sandy
enough for salamanders to live in. The soils are just
about the average in fertility.

Topography and hydrography.—In the western half of
the state, where this region is narrow, it is rather hilly
throughout, with rather sharp ridges. Eastward, where
it widens out and takes the place of the black belt, the
topography is more diversified, comprising considerable
areas of comparatively level country with low hills ris-
ing above it and narrow ravines cut into it, with many
bluffs along the larger streams, and not much swamp.
The streams are rather numerous, but seem to present
no special noteworthy features.

Climate.—The weather stations at Fort Deposit, Un-
ion Springs and Eufaula are located in this region. The
average temperature and length of the growing season
are practically the same as in the black belt. The rain-
fall is a little more copious, and more evenly distributed
through the year, especially eastward. (There may be
some correlation between the wetter summers and the
sandier soils in the eastern portion. (See footnote on
page 24.)

Forest types.—These present no striking features.
There are dry oak and pine woods on the uplands,
swamps along some of the streams, and a hammock type
of woodland in ravines and second bottoms. Fire does
not seem to be very frequent now, though it may have
been more so originally, before the forests were broken
up so much by cultivated fields.

8. CHUNNENNUGGEE RIDGE.

93

LIST OF TREES.

i.)

on
e

NrFoOoRWNW OCOFNRNFKE HPO CO
Poy he et he ech lie ON a ee eee.

NNN RFwoNno,

>

Tee i
(ee ll cell cell do Sy OO NRF N Ree CO NrROoONMh ry RPReWOANORO oom

ee ie ee ee

CORF WH

ele Ie

SCOSF BRE

Pinus palustris
Pinus Taeda

Pinus echinata

Pinus glabra
Juniperus Virginiana
Myrica cerifera
Salix nigra

Populus deltoides
Carpinus Caroliniana
Betula nigra

Fagus grandifolia
Quercus alba
Quercus stellata
Quercus Durandii
Quercus lyrata
Quercus Michauxii

Quercus falcata
Quercus Catesbaei
Quercus Marylandica
Quercus nigra
Quercus laurifolia
Quercus Phellos
Ulmus alata

Planera aquatica
Morus rubra
Magnolia grandiflora

Magnolia glauca

Liriodendron Tulipifera
Sassafras varlifolium
Liquidambar Styraciflua
Platanus occidentalis

Cercis Canadensis
Cyrilla racemiflora
Ilex opaca

Acer saccharinum
Acer rubrum

Acer Negundo
Tilia heterophylla ?
Cornus florida
Nyssa biflora

Oxydendron arboreum
Diospyros Virginiana
Osmanthus Americanus
Catalpa bignonioides

Long-leaf pine

Short-leaf pine

Short-leaf pine
Spruce pine
Cedar

Myrtle

Willow
Cottonwood
Tronwood

Birch

Beech
White oak
Post oak

Swamp chest-
nut oak
Red oak
Turkey oak
Black-jack oak
Water oak

Willow oak
Elm

Mulberry
Magnolia

Bay

Poplar
Sassafras
Sweet gum
Sycamore

Redbud

Tyty

Holly

Silver maple
Red maple

Lin
Dogwood
Black gum

Sourwood
Persimmon

Catalpa

Dry soils

Generally distrib-
uted

Dry soils

Sandy bottoms, ete.

Bluffs, ete.

Ravines and bluffs

Along streams

Along streams

Creek bottoms, ete.

Along creeks and
rivers

Ravines and bluffs

Richer soils

Dry woods

Caleareous soils

Bottoms

Bottoms

Dry soils

Dry sand

Dry soils

Lew grounds

Ravines, bluffs, ete.

Low grounds

Low grounds

Muddy river-banks

Bottoms, ete.

Ravines and bot-
toms

Non-alluvial
swamps

Ravines, ete.

Various situations

Along creeks and
rivers

Bluffs, ete.

‘Creek swamps, etc.

Ravines and bluffs
River-banks
Branch-swamps, ete.
Creek-banks, etc.
Ravines and bluffs
Dry woods
Branch-swamps,
ete,
Ravines, etc.

Ravines and bluffs
River-banks

94 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

About 38% of the trees in the original forests were
evergreen, a much larger proportion than in the adjoin-
ing black-belt, but less than in most of the regions far-
ther south.

Population, etc.—The density of population in this re-
gion was about 41 persons to the square mile in 1910, a
slight decrease since 1900. Most of the inhabitants are
negroes, but the proportion of them is not as large as in
the black belt. About half of the region seems to be still
wooded, but much of the forest is second growth. There
is little or no free range for cattle at the present time.

Forest products.—The forest products are relatively
unimportant, and mainly of the commoner sorts, such as
short-leaf and long-leaf pine lumber and products, pine
and oak cross-ties, white oak cotton baskets, etc. Some
evergreens of various sorts are shipped north in winter
for Christmas decorations. This industry will be de-’
scribed more particularly under region no. 11, where it is
more prevalent.

For this region the Southern Lumberman lists 23 saw-
mills with an average capacity of 8,700 feet a day, be-
sides one with 50,000, and 3 other wood-working estab-
lishments. Thirteen of the mills cut long-leaf pine, 22
short-leaf, 2 “white pine” (probably Pinus glabra), 2
hickory, 11 white oak, 12 red oak, 8 poplar, and 4 sweet
gum. The 50,000-foot mill, at Prentice, Marengo County,
operates 9 miles of tram-road, presumably extending
into the post-oak flatwoods near by, which are much ~
more heavily timbered.

9. POST OAK FLATWOODS, 95

9. The Post Oak Flatwoods.
(Figure 35.)

This is a very narrow belt, both in Alabama and in
Mississippi, the only two states in which it is represent-
ed. The Alabama portion has been estimated by Dr.
Smith (no. 6, p. 61; no. 7, p. 279) to cover 335 square
miles.

References.—Smith 7 (279-281, 460-462, 470), Smith
6 (61-62, 128, 129, 1382), Smith 8 (186-188, 592-593, 601-
602, 609), Smith 9 (132, 188-189, 247-248), U.S. soil sur-
vey of Sumter County, and R. D. Webb.

Geology and soils.—The geological formation of this
region is one of the Lower Eocene formations, the Sucar-
nochee or Black Bluff, and it forms the surface over
most of the area, the Lafayette being apparently absent.
The soil to a depth of many feet is a grayish or yellowish
laminated or faintly mottled clay, tolerably pure, or at
least with very little sand or lime in it. Fresh exposures
of it in cuts and ditches soon become covered with fine
cracks just like those described on page 72 for one phase
of the Tuscaloosa formation. It is fairly well supplied
with potash, but deficient in lime and nitrogen, and con-
tains a rather high percentage of magnesia, which is be-
lieved to be detrimental to some plants. For this reason
and also on account of its stiffness, and the scarcity of
water, it is not cultivated much.

Topography and hydrography.—tThis belt is too nar-
row to have any well-marked topographic characters, but
it is for the most part pretty level, as its name implies.
Small shallow ponds are found in a few places. Some
streams flow across it, but few originate in it.

Forest types.—The forests are nearly al! of one type,
dry open woods. There are doubtless some characteris-
tic trees along the streams, but these have not been stud-
ied much. Fires presumably are moderately frequent.

96 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES.

3-2 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |Poorest soils
22-20 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine |Nearly Pah 3
15-12 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine |Dry soils

2-2 Hicoria ovata Scaly-bark

hickory

3-2 Hicoria alba ‘Hickory Dry soils

1-2 Salix nigra Willow Along streams

1-1 Betula nigra ‘Birch Along streams

1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana Low grounds

3-3 Fagus grandifolia Beech Low grounds

2-2 Quercus alba ‘White oak
11-9 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry soils

2-2 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest-

nut oak Low grounds

5-6 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry soils

3-3 Quercus pagodaefolai Low grounds

0-0 Quercus coccinea Spanish oak Dry soils

1-1 Quercus Marylandica ([Black-jack oak |Driest soils

2-3 Quercus nigra i\Water oak Low grounds

0-0 Quercus laurifolia

3-3 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Low grounds

1-1 Ulmus Americana Elm |

2-2 Ulmus alata Elm |

1-1 Celtis occidentalis Hackberry Low grounds

2-2 Liriodendron Tulipifera | Poplar Along branches, ete.

0-1 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Creek bottoms

0-0 ‘Magnolia glauca Bay Along branches

6-8 Liquidambar Styraciflua|Sweet gum Various situations

2-2 Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Along creeks and

rivers

0-0 Crataegus viridis? Haw Low grounds

0-0 Ilex opaca Holly

1-2 Acer rubrum Black gum Along branches, ete.

2-2 Nyssa sylvatica? (Red) maple

0-0 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood Dry soils

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon

0-0 Fraxinus Americana Ash

The three pines, constituting about 40% of the orig-
inal forests, are evergreen, and the few much rarer ever-
green trees increase this to about 42%. About the only
noteworthy feature of this list is that the species are
comparatively few in number, and nearly all common
and widely distributed. The magnolia is the only one of
them that is confined to the coastal plain.

Forest utilization—Probably 80% of the area has
never been cultivated, but a good deal of the three kinds

10. SOUTHERN RED HILLS. 97

of pine has been cut for lumber, and doubtless much of
the post oak for cross-ties, etc.

From the Southern Lumberman’s directory it would
appear that this region has more sawmills in operation
to its area than any other, but the area is so small that
there is considerable chance for error in this estimate.
Their average capacity is pretty high, too, 23,800 feet a
day. Probably half of them are of the “big mill” type,
with tram-road and waste-burner. Of the nine mills re-
porting, two cut long-leaf pine and eight short-leaf (of
two species, of course). White oak, red oak and poplar
are reported by two mills each, and sweet gum by one.
There seem to be 25 or 30 miles of logging railroad in the
region, which is about as much to the square mile as any
other region has.

10. The Southern Red Hills.
(Figures 36-39.)

This region extends uninterruptedly frem South Caro-
lina to West Tennessee, if not farther. and embraces
about 8,000 square miles in Alabama. In the eastern
half of the state, as in adjacent Georgia, its northern
edge is marked by an inland-facing escarpment similar
to the Chunnennuggee Ridge mentioned a few pages
back, passing a few miles north of Troy and Clayton.

References.—Ball, Lyell (53-66), Mohr 3 (527-528),
Mohr 5, 6 (39), Mohr 8 (106-110), Smith 6 (51-55, 68,
141-153), Smith 7 (252-265, 294, 496-528), Smith 8 (194
and numerous county descriptions, especially 610-625 and
629-637), Smith 9 (20, 239, 245-246, 263-267), Tuomey 1
(143-154), Tuomey 2 (244, by E. Q. Thornton), Win-
chell.

Geology and soils.—This region is underlaid by vari-
ous Eocene formations, which have been named in Dr.
Smith’s reports and elsewhere Midway or Clayton, Nahe-
ola, Nanafalia, Bell’s Landing or Tuscahoma, Wood’s
Bluff or Bashi, Hatchetigbee, Buhrstone, and Clai-
borne. (Most of these names are derived from Alabama
localities, because the Eocene strata are more diversified

7G

98 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

in Alabama than anywhere else in the whole coastal
plain.) These strata vary greatly lithologically, espe-
cially in percentage of lime, but they do not affect the
soil as much as they do the topography, for they are
pretty well covered by a more homogeneous superficial
formation, presumably the Lafayette. This is mostly a
red loam, as usual, but eastward much of the surface is
covered with loose yellowish sand, which may be a later
formation, but is more likely a mere phase of the Lafay-
ette. The soils are very diverse, ranging from nearly
pure limestone on outcrops of the Midway formation to
barren quartz sands. Most of them seem to be a little
deficient in potash. The sandiness eastward may be cor-
related in some measure with the wetter summers in
those parts, as was suggested in the case of region no. 8.

Topography and hydrography.—The topography is so
diversified that it would be out of the question to at-
tempt to describe all the numerous forms here. On the
average it is moderately hilly, with the valleys a little
swampy. The hills are usually somewhat broader than
the valleys, and in some places they spread out into pla-
teaus standing about 400 feet above sea-level, known lo-
cally as “red levels.”” In some of the more elevated areas
the valleys are narrow and ravine-like, with no swamps.
In Choctaw, Clarke and Monroe Counties the Buhrstone
rocks are very siliceous and have resisted erosion so long
that they form high rocky ridges, rising in some places
200 feet or more above the surrounding country, and
known locally as “mountains.”* In Butler and Crenshaw
Counties can be seen another extreme of topography, flat
pine woods much like some of those considerably nearer
the coast.

Most of the streams are sluggish and bordered by
swamps. The rivers are muddy most of the time, but
the creeks and branches are of course considerably less
so. Small springs are common enough, but large ones
are rare, and chiefly confined to the regions of Midway

*The only railroad tunnels in the coastal plain of the United
States, as far as known, are in these mountains, one in Monroe
County, and one in Lauderdale County, Mississippi, which adjoins

Alabama.
See also Harper 6 (111).

10. SOUTHERN RED HILLS. 99

and Nanafalia limestone. (The Blue Spring in Barbour
County is probably the largest one in the region.) The
ground-water fluctuates less here than in most of the re-
gions previously described, partly because this is nearer
the coast, and partly also on account of a more evenly
distributed seasonal rainfall.

Climate.—Two of the weather stations mentioned in
the appendix are located in this region, namely, Push-
mataha, among the mountains of Choctaw County, and
Thomasville, in Clarke County. The average tempera-
ture and length of the growing season seem to differ lit-
tle from those of the three or four regions last de-
scribed. At Thomasville the summers are a little wetter
than at any station previously mentioned, and if any
data were available for the eastern half of the region
they would probably show a still greater tendency in
that direction.

Forest types.—The “mountains” and most of the other
ridges are or have been covered with splendid long-leaf
pine forests, interspersed with several upland oaks. But
in Pike and Barbour Counties (as well as in the corre-
sponding parts of Southwest Georgia) there is a belt ten
or fifteen miles wide where this pine is rare or absent,
for no apparent reason.* Little or none of it is visible
from the railroads in Clarke and Wilcox Counties, but
that is partly due to the fact that the railroads there run
for considerable distances through valleys, while the
pine is chiefly confined to hills. In the more hilly por-
tions the ravines and bluffs are covered with beech, white
oak, cucumber trees, short-leaf pines, ete. Some out-
crops of Midway limestone, particularly in the northern
part of Butler County, are said to have once supported a
fine growth of cedar. The “pocosin’; in Pike County,

*Sugar-cane, which is cultivated in nearly every region where
Set pine grows, seems to be equally scarce in the same
elt.

yPocosin, like hammock, is a phytogeographical term used only
in the coastal plain. It is most prevalent in eastern North Caro-
lina, where it means a level area with wet sour sandy soil, sparse-
ly wooded with pine or cypress, with a dense undergrowth of
shrubs and vines, mostly evergreen (something like fig. 52 of this
report). Just how the term came to be applied to such a different
type of vegetation in Alabama is a mystery.

100 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

about half way between Troy and Brundidge, is a beau-
tiful bit of virgin forest covering several hundred acres
and closely resembling the sandy hammockst which are
common farther south. The trees in it are mostly of
species which cannot stand fire, and they are protected
from fire by being nearly surrounded by an area of dry
sand on which the vegetation is too sparse to feed flames.
The swamps vary from alluvial to non-alluvial, and each
kind has its characteristic timber.

Fires are frequent on the wooded uplands, especially
where long-leaf pine is the prevailing tree, but rare in
the valleys, and almost impossible in ravines and
swamps.

LIST OF TREES.

16-10 Pinus palustris ‘Long-leaf pine |Poorest soils
0-1 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Low grounds
10-12 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine|Various situations
6-4 Pinus echinata ‘Short-leaf pine|Dry soils
3-3 Pinus glabra ‘Spruce pine Hammocks
2-2 Taxodium distichum, Cypress Swamps
1-0 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Limestone outcrops
0-0 Hicoria aquatica (Swamp) hick-|Along creeks and
d ory rivers
1-0 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
0-0 Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hick- |Dry woods
ory ;
1-2 Salix nigra Willow Along streams
1-2. Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks
1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana (Ironwood iNear streams
1-1 Ostrya Virginiana Ravines and bluffs
1-2 Betula nigra Birch Along creeks and
rivers
3-2 Fagus grandifolia Beech Bluffs and bottoms
0-0 Castanea dentata Chestnut Becoming scarcer
0-0 Castanea pumila Chinquapin Dry woods
3-2 Quercus alba White oak Rich woods
2-1 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry woods
0-0 Quercus Margaretta Post oak Dry sand
0-0 Quercus lyrata Alluvial swamps
0-1 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest- |Alluvial swamps
nut oak
4-3. Quercus falcata Red oak Dry woods
0-1 Quercus pagodaefolia Bottoms
0-0 Quercus rubra Ravines and bluffs
0-0 Quercus Schneckii Bottoms
0-0 Quercus velutina ‘Black oak Dry woods

tSee footnote on page 83.

10. SOUTHERN RED HILLS. 101

ERR OCCrPNWNNNO

ooodHorFooorFo& Re Re © ll eee ell eel ooornko oorhroo WWrFODOCORFRNNRFNHS
coorF-oodrFrHocorF&S Nowor NRrOoF Oo Coon ueo Coowroe

LIST OF TREES.—Continued.

|

Quercts coccinea Spanish oak §|Dry woods
Quercvs Catesbaei Turkey oak ‘Dry sand
Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Dry soils
Quercus cinerea Dry soils
Quercts nigra Water oak ‘Low grounds
Quercus laurifelia ‘Hammocks, ete.
Quercus Phellos Willow oak Low grounds
Ulmus Americana Elm
Ulmus alata Elm
Planera aquatica . River-banks
Morus rubra Mulberry Bottoms, ete.
Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks, ete.
Magnolia glauca Bay Non-alluvial
swamps
Magnolia acuminata Cucumber tree | Rich woods
Magnolia pyramidata Cucumber tree | Rich woods
Magnolia macrophylla |Cucumber tree | Bluffs, ete.
Liriodendron Tulipifera | Poplar Along branches, ete.
Persea Borbonia Red bay Hammocks, ete.
Persea pubescens Red bay Non-alluvial
swamps
Sassafras variifolium (Sassafras
Liquidambar Styraciflua| Sweet gum Various situations
Platanus occidentalis Sycamore River-banks mostly
Crataegus spathulata Haw Dry woods
Crataegus Michauxii Haw Dry sand, eastward
Prunus Caroliniana Hammocks and
bluffs
Cercis Canadensis Redbud Rich woods
Ilex opaca Holly Ravines, bluffs, ete.
Acer Floridanum ‘Sugar maple |Ravines, bluffs, etc.
Acer saccharinum ‘Silver maple |River-banks
Acerrubrum . ‘Red maple Branch-swamps,
| eiG:
Acer Negundo River-banks, ete.
Tilia heterophylla? Lin Rich woods
Cornus florida 'Dogwood ’|Dry woods
Nyssa sylvatica ‘Black gum Rich woods
Nyssa biflora Black gum Non-alluvial
swamps
Nyssa uniflora ‘Tupelo gum Sloughs, ete.
Oxydendron arboreum Sourwood Ravines and blffs
Bumelia lycioides |
Bumelia lanuginosa | Sandy hammocks
Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon
Halesia diptera River-banks, etc.
Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf Ravines and bluffs
Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich woods
Fraxinus Caroliniana Ash Swamps
Osmanthus Americana Hammocks

Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa River-banks

102 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

About 47% of the trees in the original forests were
evergreen. Seventeen of the species, comprising about
20% of all the trees, are oaks. This number of oaks
seems to be equaled only in the short-leaf pine belt
(6A); but oaks form a larger proportion of the forest
in several of the regions farther inland. The meost note-
worthy tree reaching its inland limit in this region is
Pinus Elliottii, the slash pine,* which is found in the
southern part of Butler County, but is much more abun-
dant in the regions farther south.

Population, etc.—At the time of the last census the
southern red hill region had about 32 inhabitants to the
square mile, an increase of. about 12!14% in ten years.
About 57% of the population is white. About 60% of the
region seems to be still wooded,—more in the mountain-
ous sections than elsewhere, of course. Some of the
counties have a stock law and some have not.

Forest utilization. A great deal of the long-leaf pine
has of course been cut out, but it is still the most abun-
dant tree in the region, apparently. The short-leaf pine
and a few of the oaks have spread somewhat into old
fields, but otherwise the proportions of the different up-
land species have not changed much. From the swamps
some cypress has been removed, but little other damage
has been done to them. In some parts of the region
which are remote from railroads, tram-roads have been
built out from navigable rivers, particularly the Tombig-
bee, and the timber gotten out in that way. The princi-
pal forest products seem to be as follows:

Long-leaf and short-leaf pine lumber.

Naval stores.

Cross-ties (mostly pine).

Baskets, crates, veneers.

Doors, sash, blinds, mouldings, mantels.

Staves, spokes, handles.

Pine and cypress shingles (both split and sawed).
Cedar posts and pencil wood (decreasing).
Dogwood logs for shuttles.

*In the latter part of the 19th century this tree was miscalled
“Cuban pine” by many writers on forestry, because it was
thought to be identical with Pinus Cubensis, a species now believed
to be confined to eastern Cuba. The name “slash pine” may not
be used much in Alabama, but it is common in Georgia.

11. THE LIME HILLS. 103

Poplar logs and lumber.

Other hardwood logs of various kinds, exported whole.
Evergreens for winter decorations.

Pine lightwood shipped to cities.

White oak cotton baskets.

Honey, persimmons, hickory nuts.

The stage of development of the lumber industry in
this region is just about intermediate between that of
the hardwood and the long-leaf pine regions, and in
many respects pretty close to the average for the whole
state. The Southern Lumberman enumerates 76 saw-
mills, with an average capacity of 13,900 feet a day, and
5 other wood-working establishments. Only about five of
the sawmills have tram-roads (aggregating 114 miles in
length), but one of these five, at Chapman, Butler Coun-
ty, in the flat pine woods area mentioned a few pages
back, seems to be the third largest in the state. Over
twenty kinds of wood are reported by the sawmills of
this region. Sixty-one of them cut long-leaf pine, 52
short-leaf (of two or three species), one “spruce”
(Pinus glabra?), 6 cypress, 8 hickory, 4 beech, 19
“white oak,” 11 “red oak,” 36 poplar, 2 magnolia, 8 sweet
gum, and 6 ash.

The evergreen industry, which will be described more
particularly under the next region, is carried on to a con-
siderable extent in Monroe, Conecuh, Crenshaw, Barbour,
Henry and perhaps a few other counties, mostly in late
fall.

11. The Lime Hills.
(Figure 40.)

This division, covering about 1,300 square miles in
Alabama, extends from Conecuh County northwestward
into Mississippi. The red lime lands of the central part
of Jackson County, Florida, which seem to extend a little
way into Houston County, Alabama, are essentially the
same kind of country. Farther east there is nothing ex-
actly like it.

References.—Ball, Lyell (77), Smith 6 (62-64, 143-145,
148-149, 154-155), Smith 7 (281-285, 500-501, 503-504,

104 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

507, 515-518, 530-533), Smith 8 (107-117, 120-121, and
county descriptions), Smith 9 (284-286, 298-302), Tuo-
mey 1 (154-159), Tuomey 2 (249-252, by E. Q. Thorn-
ton).

Geology and soils.—The principal rock of this region is
the Vicksburg or St. Stephens white limestone, regarded
by some geologists as the uppermost member of the
Eocene and by others as Lower Oligocene; a matter of
classification which does not particularly concern the
geographer. Some older Eocene rocks, such as Claiborne
and Buhrstone, are exposed in the Hatchetigbee anti-
cline of Choctaw, Clarke and Washington Counties,
which belongs geologically with the region last de-
scribed, but for geographical purposes is best included in
the lime hills region, which completely surrounds it. The
white limestone crops out on hillsides in many places,
and is a favorite material for chimneys, on account of
the ease with which it can be sawn into blocks of the de-
sired size when freshly quarried.

The soil on the uplands is mainly a dark red loam,
probably most of it residual from the limestone, rather
than belonging to the Lafayette formation. Like most
calcareous soils lying considerably above sea-level, it is
very fertile; except that potash is a little deficient on the
ridges.

The existence of deposits of salt, alkali, sulphur, etc.,
in this region, especially in the vicinity of the Hatche-
tigbee anticline, is shown by the occurrence of these sub-
stanes in the water of springs and artesian wells; and
there are a few places where their effects on vegetation
are noticeable.

‘Topography and hydrography.—The topography is in
general rather hilly. In some places in the vicinity of
the anticline above mentioned it is almost as mountain-
ous as in neighboring parts of the red hills region. One
or two caves are reported, but there seems to be no ponds
or large limestone springs, and the streams present no
peculiarities worth mentioning.

Climate.—The weather records from Bermuda, Cone-
cuh County, which is just about on the northern edge of ©
this belt, may be taken to illustrate its climate. The av-

11. THE LIME HILLS. 105

erage temperature is about 65°, and the average annual
rainfall about 50 inches. The four warmest months get
more than their share of rain, but the six warmest
months get a little less. (In this and several other cases
it appears that the contrast between summer and winter
rainfall is better exhibited by taking the figures for four
months than for six.)

Forest types.—The limestone outcrops are character-
ized by cedar, redbud, mulberry, and other trees that are
sensitive to fire, usually draped with “moss” (Villandsia
usneoides). The drier uplands have various oaks, short-
leaf pines, and occasionally long-leaf pine, the latter
seeming strangely out of place among such dense vegeta-
tion. The forests on loamy slopes and in bottoms are
mainly of the hammock type, with magnolia, beech,
spruce pine, etc. Fire is infrequent.

LIST OF TREES.

10-8 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine |Dry soils
10-12 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine oe distrib-
ute
3-3 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Dry soils
5-6 Pinus glabra Spruce pine 'Ravines and bluffs
2-2 Taxodium distichum Cypress ‘Swamps
4-2 Juniperus Virginiana Cedar ‘Rock outcrops
0-0 Juglans nigra ‘Black walnut (Limestone slopes
1-1 Hicoria aquatica (Swamp) hick- Along creeks, etc.
ory |
2-1 Hicoria alba Hickory Dry woods
1-2 Salix nigra Willow ‘Along streams
1-1 Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks, etc.
1-1 Carpinus Caroliniana [lronwood Creek-swamps, etc.
1-1 Ostrya Virginiana Ravines and bluffs
2-2 Betula nigra Birch Along creeks and
rivers
4-4 Fagus grandifolia Beech Bluffs and bottoms
5-3 Quercus alba - ‘White oak Bottoms, ete.
1-1 Quercus stellata Post oak Dry woods
1-1 Quercus Durandii Limestone outcrops
0-0 Quercus Muhlenbergii Limestone outcrops
1-1 Quercus Michauxii Swamp chest-
nut oak Bottoms
2-2 Quercus falcata Red oak Dry woods
0-0 Quercus Schneckii Calcareous soils
0-1 Quercus Catesbaei Turkey oak Sandy soils
1-1 Quercus Marylandica |Black-jack
oak Dry woods
0-1 Quercus cinerea Sandy soils

106 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES.—Continued.

8-3 Quercus nigra Water oak Bottoms
2-2 Quercus laurifolia Bluffs, ete.
‘1-1 Quercus Phellos Willow oak Bottoms

1-1 Ulmuvusalata Elm

1-1 Planera aquatica River-banks

1-1 Celtis occidentalis Hackberry River-banks

2-1 Morus rubra Mulberry Calcareous soils

4-4 Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Ravines and bluffs

2-3 Magnolia glauca Bay Sandy swamps

0-0 Magnolia acuminata Cucumber tree |Rich woods

1-1 Magnolia macrophylla |Cucumber tree |Ravines and bluffs

8-3 Liriodendron Tulipifera |Poplar Ravines and bluffs

0-0 Sassafras variifolium Sassafras

5-4 Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Various situations

2-3 Platanvus occidentalis Sycamore River banks, ete.

2-2 Cercis Canadensis Redbud Rock outcrops
mostly

0-0 Cyrilla racemifiora Tyty Creek swamps

2-2 Ilex opaca Holly Ravines and bluffs

0-0 Acer leucoderme? Sugar maple Limestone slopes

1-1 Acer saccharinum Silver maple River-banks

0-1 Acer rubrum Red maple Branch-swamps

1-1 Acer Negundo Along creeks and
rivers

0-0 Tilia heterophylla? Lin Limestone slopes

1-1 Aralia spinosa Prickly ash |Limestone slopes

8-2 Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods

0-0 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum

1-2. Nyssa biflora Black gum Non-alluvial
swamps

1-1 Oxydendronarboreum |Sourwood /Ravines and bluffs

0-1 Diospyros Virginiana Persimmon

0-0 MHalesia diptera Limestone slopes,
etc.

0-0 Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf Ravines and bluffs

0-0 Fraxinus Americana Ash Rich soils :

0-0 Osmanthus Americana Ravires and bluffs

0-0 Catalpa bignonioides Catalpa Creek-banks, ete.

0-0 Viburnum rufidulum Black haw Dry woods

About 44% of these trees are evergreen, which is
rather a high figure for such a calcareous region.

Economic features.—Notwithstanding the fertility of
the soil, probably at least two-thirds of the area is still
wooded, partly because the roughness of the topography
interferes somewhat with agricultural operations, and
apparently also because this region is considered less
salubrious than most of the non-calcareous parts of the

11. THE LIME HILLS. 107

state. The long-leaf pine is not abundant enough or ac-
cessible enough to invite extensive lumbering operations,
but some turpentine was made from it in Choctaw
County as long ago as before the war, it is said. The
magnolia, poplar, spruce pine, and a few other species
are being made into baskets and crates at Evergreen,
and considerable quantities of short-leaf pine lumber and
white oak staves are gotten out in many places. Cedar
is cut for posts and doubtless also for pencil wood.

Excluding the large mill at Jackson, which must get
most of its timber from other regions farther up the
Tombighbee River, the Southern Lumberman lists nine
mills from this region, with an average canacity of 9,555
feet a day, and no tram-roads. Eight of them cut long-
leaf pine, 8 short-leaf, 2 cypress, 2 hickory, 5 white oak,
3 red oak, 7 poplar, 2 sweet gum, and 2 ash.

The evergreen decoration industry deserves special
mention. Although the proportion of evergreen trees is
not as large here as in adjacent regions, if the pines are
left out and shrubs and vines taken into consideration
there are few regions which surpass this in number of
evergreens. Mr. G. W. Caldwell* began shipping ever-
greens, principally wild smilax, for decorative purposes
from Evergreen about 25 years ago, and since then the
industry has grown to large proportions, and spread to
several other counties. Most of the plants utilized in this
way are shrubs and vines, but branches of such trees as
long-leaf pine, magnolia and holly also make up a consid-
erable proportion of the shipments.

*See bibliography.

108 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

12. The Lime-Sink Region.
(Figures 41, 42.)

The region just described passes eastward into one
with similar geological characters but very different soil,
topography and vegetation, which may be called the
lime-sink region, as it is a direct continuation of a region
so named in Georgia. About 1,300 square miles of it is
in Alabama and still more in West Florida and South-
west Georgia.

References.—Smith 6 (65, 153, 157-158), Smith 7
(287, 527, 538-541), Smith 8 (117-119, 667, 675-676,
681), Smith 9 (249, 259, plate 17A).

Geology and soils.—The underlying formation of this
region is mainly the Vicksburg, as in the last, but the
original limestone has been very largely replaced by
silica, so that the rocks are mostly flinty or cherty. (It
is barely possible that the wetter summers and sandier
soil eastward may have something to do with this.) Over
it nearly everywhere is several feet of mottled sandy
clay, probably Pliocene, and on top of that in most places
a foot or so of whitish sand, presumably still more re-
cent. A tolerably pure limestone crops out in a few
spots, however, mostly on the banks of creeks. The
sandy soil was almost hopelessly sterile by ante-bellum
standards, but in these days of commercial fertilizers,
when ease of cultivation is about the best quality a soil
can have, it is enjoying great popularity, and being ap-
propriated by farmers very rapidly.

Topography and hydrography.—The topography is
more nearly level than that of most of the regions previ-
ously described. Shallow ponds, most of which are dry
for a few weeks or months each year, are very common.
Streams are not well developed, and a good deal of the
drainage is subterranean (not as much so in Alabama,
however, as in the corresponding parts of Georgia and
Florida). A few caves and big springs are known, and
lime-sinks (an illustration of one of which is referred to
above) are a very characteristic though rather uncom-
mon feature of this region. One essential topographic

12. LIME-SINK REGION. 109

difference between this region and that next to be de-
scribed is that here some comparatively level areas are
bordered by low hills, while in the next, on leaving a
plain, other than a river-terrace or flood-plain, one always
goes down hill.

Climate.—No accurate climatic data from this part of
the state seem to be available yet. Its temperature
doubtless does not differ essentially from the average be-
tween the regions on either side of it, and, the summers
are evidently somewhat wetter than the winters.

Forest types.—The greater part of this region was
originally covered with an open forest of long-leaf pine,
carpeted with wire-grass and other narrow-leaved
herbs, from which this region derives its popular name
of “wire-grass country.” <A person standing in the midst
of a primeval forest of this type can usually see just
about a quarter of a mile in every direction. The shal-
low depressions rarely contain open sheets of water, but
are usually full of cypress, slash pine, black gum, may-
haw, or yaupon, or two or more of these trees together.
Where the water in these depressions is never more than
a few inches deep and the vegetation is dense and com-
posed mostly of bay, tyty, or other evergreen small trees
or large shrubs, they are called bays. (Bays seem to be
commonest in the southern part of Covington County
and neighboring parts of Florida.) The streams are
nearly everywhere bordered by swamps, and the lime-
stone outcrops usually have a rich hammock vegetation.

Fire is frequent here, as in all other long-leaf pine re-
gions, but it rarely invades the bays, swamps, or ham-
mocks.

LIST OF TREES.

|
50-35 Pinus palustris ‘Long-leaf pine The prevailing tree
6-6 Pinus Elliottii ‘Slash pine |Ponds and bays
5-7 Pinus Taeda ‘Short-leaf pine Swamps mostly
1-1 Pinus serotina ‘Black pine \Bays
2-1 Pinus echinata \Short-leaf pine |Clayey soils
1-1 Pinus glabra ‘Spruce pine ‘'Hammocks
2-1 Taxodium distichum (River) cypress Swamps
6-6 Taxodium imbricarium |(Pond) cypress |Ponds mostly

110

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIST OF TREES.—Continued.

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CrRONrFOCOWNOOCLHh a S|

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eh ee rage NonNno
COOCOrFRCCOCWROCONFROCL NrN Oo

Juniperus Virginiana
Hicoria alba

Myrica cerifera

Salix nigra

Carpinus Caroliniana
Ostrya Virginiana
Betula nigra

Fagus grandifolia

Quercus alba
Quercus Mchlenbergii
Quercus Virginiana

Quercus geminata
Quercus falcata
Quercus Schneckii

Quercus Catesbaei
Quercus Marylandica
Quercus cinerea
Quercus nigra

Quercus laurifolia
Planera aquatica
Morus rubra
Magnolia grandiflora
Magnclia glauca
Magnolia pyramidata

Liriodendron Tulipifera
Liquidambar Styraciflua

Platanus occidentalis
Crataegus aestivalis
Prunus serotina
Cercis Canadensis
Cyrilla racemifiora
Cliftenia monophylla
Ilex opaca

Ilex myrtifelia

Ilex vomitoria

Acer Floridanum
Acer rubrum

Aralia spinosa
Cornus florida

Nyssa biflora

Nyssa uniflora
Bumelia lanuginosa
Bumelia lycioides
Diospyros Virginiana
Halesia diptera
Osmanthus Americana
Catalpa bignonioides

Cedar
Hickory
Myrtle
Willow
Ironwood

Birch
Beech

'|White oak

Live oak

Live oak
Red oak

Turkey oak
Black-jack oak

'Water oak

‘Mulberry
‘Magnolia
Bay
Cucumber tree
|Poplar
Sweet gum
| Sycamore
|May-haw
Wild cherry
Redbud
Tyty

Tyty

Holly

Yaupon

Sugar maple
Red maple
Prickly ash
Dogwood
Black gum
Tupelo gum

Persimmon

.

Catalpa

Limestone outcrops

Clayey soils

‘Hammocks

Along rivers mostly

‘Bottoms

|Hammocks

\Along rivers mostly

Hammocks anil
bluffs

Richer soils

Limestone outcrops

Calecareous ham-
mocks

Sandy creek banks

Clayey sols

Caleareous ham-
mocks

Dry sand

Dry clay soils

Dry sand

Creek swamps

| mostly

Sandy hammocks

|River-banks

|Richest soils

‘Hammocks

‘Bays and swamps

Bluffs along rivers

‘Branch-swamps

‘Various situations

Along rivers

‘Shallow ponds

Hammocks

Limestone outcrops

Creek swamps

Bays

Hammocks and
bleffs

Shallow ponds

Hammocks

Hammocks

Branch-swamps

Hammocks

Dry woods

Swamps and ponds

Sloughs, ete.

Sandy hammocks

Limestone outcrops

Various situations

Sandy banks, etc.

Hammocks

River-banks

12. LIME-SINK REGION. 111

About 75% of the trees in the original forests were
evergreen.

Long-leaf pine of course makes up most of this figure,
but there are more broad-leaved evergreen trees here
than in any region farther inland, with the possible ex-
ception of the lime hills. No other division of the state,
except the next one, has so many species of pine. There
are ten oaks, but they seem to have made up only about
7% of the original forests. They are of course now rela-
tively more abundant since so many of the pines have
been cut away, and some of them may have also in-
creased in absolute abundance.

One tree which occurs in this list and not in any of the
preceding ones is 7'axrodium imbricarium, the pond cy-
press.* The same would be true of its associate the
slash pine, but for the fact that a little of that grows in
Butler County, in region no. 10. Other trees which ap-
pear for the first time in this list are the two live oaks,
the May-haw, the evergreen tyty, and the yaupon;
though the last four are often nothing but shrubs.

Population, proportion of forest remaining, etc.—Un-
less there is some serious error in the census figures or
in the author’s calculations, there were in this region in
1910 about 50 inhabitants to the square mile, an in-
crease of nearly 60% in ten years. Over three-fourths
of the population is white. It seems strange that a re-
gion where agriculture is still comparatively in its in-
fancy can support so dense a population. The paradox
is doubtless partly, though not wholly, explained by the
presence of several small cities such as Dothan, Hartford
and Florala, which draw part of their support from other
regions. Another circumstance to be considered is that
nearly all the farmers are white, and they probably culti-
vate the land more intensively and can therefore live
closer together than do those in some of the old agricul-
tural reg ons where large plantations and negro labor
are the rule.

*It extends considerably farther inland in some of the states
fariher east, however.

112 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

The region is being settled up so rapidly that it is dif-
ficult to get a reliable estimate of the relative proportion
of forest and clearing, but it is probably safe to say that
at least half of the area has not yet felt the plow. Most
of the long-leaf pine has been removed or culled, how-
ever, although a few fine stands of virgin timber can still
be seen, especially in Covington County. The topog-
raphy offers no appreciable obstacle to lumbering opera-
tions, so that when railroads once entered the region the
destruction of forests was very rapid. In the earlier pe-
riods of agricultural development, when pine timber was .
worth considerably less than it is now, and much of it
was too remote from railroads to be marketed profitably,
thousands of the finest trees were deadened to make
room for crops, and their decaying trunks standing like
gaunt sentinels in the fields are still a melancholy sight
in this and adjoining regions, for the practice has not en-
tirely ceased yet.

This region and the next are about the only parts of
Alabama where long-leaf pine fuel is still used as motive
power for passenger trains; and the growing scarcity of
timber will probably banish the picturesque wood-burn-
ing locomotive and its resinous aroma from our state
entirely (except on logging roads, etc.) within a very
few years.

Cattle still have free range in all the counties.

Forest products.—The production of lumber, shingles,
cross-ties, naval stores, etc., from the long-leaf and slash
pine overshadows all other forest industries in this re-
gion. Some of the cypress has been cut for telephone
poles and cross-ties, and the best of the very scattered
cedars have already gone to the pencil mills, but the
hardwoods are still almost untouched, except such upland
oaks as have been destroyed in clearing the land. About
5% of the wood-working industries of the state, other
than turpentine stills, sawmills, cross-tie camps, etc., are
located in this region.

Although no statistics for earlier periods are accessi-
ble at the present writing, it is pretty evident that the
lumber industry has declined rapidly here in the last
decade or two, probably more so than in any other part

13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 113

of the state. If we leave out of consideration the largest
mill in the state, which although it draws some of its
timber from this region is located in the next, there are
listed from this region in the Southern Lumberman’s di-
rectory only 10 sawmills, with an average capacity of
9,300 feet a day. The largest one cuts 25,000 feet a day,
and has 7 miles of tram-road. If we assume that half
the timber for the big mill at Lockhart (mentioned
on page 121) comes from the lime-sink region, and
count that mill as one, the average capacity for the
region would be nearly doubled. All the mills cut
long-leaf pine, 3 short-leaf pine, and 3 poplar. In the
last decade of the 19th century there must have been
nearly as many sawmills in proportion to area in this re-
gion as in that next to be described, but now the farmers
have almost put the lumbermen out of business.

13. Southwestern Pine Hills.
(Figures 43-48.)

. This attractive region, covering about 5,000 square
miles in Alabama, extends from near the Savannah River
in Georgia through West Florida to southern Mississippi,
and reappears in Louisiana.

References.—Bartram, Mohr 3 (525, 527, 529-530),
Mohr 5 or 6 (38-39), Mohr 8 (110-124, 125-127, 822),
Smith 6 (64-67, 154-158), Smith 7 (285-293, 529-540),
Smith 8 (98-99, 101-107, 681-687, 690-704; some of this
by L. C. Johnson), Smith 9 (22-24, 250-251, 302-316),
Tuomey 2 (148-149), Stelle. Also U. S. soil surveys of
Baldwin and Mobile Counties.

Geology and soils.—The oldest strata exposed in this
region are mottled clays and coarse loamy cross-bedded
sands, with various shades of pink, yellow, purple, etc.,
all essentially non-caleareous and devoid of fossils. Much
of this material is indistinguishable, to the naked eye at
least, from the strata underlying the long-ieaf pine hills
of the central pine belt (region 6B), although it is sup-
posed to be not older than Pliocene, and therefore very
much younger than the central pine belt. On top of this

8G

114 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

heterogeneous material in many places is a few feet of
brick-red loam referred to the Lafayette, and over that.
sometimes sand of still later age.*

Both superficial formations (if such they are) may be
absent, however,—as appears to be the case over the
greater part of Washington County—without making
much difference in the vegetation; perhaps because all
are equally deficient in lime and potash. Where the
older formation comes to the surface the uppermost few
inches are usually more sandy than the rest, this differ-
ence being presumably due to weathering, assisted by
vegetation and copious summer rains.

Pebbles similar to those in the central pine belt occur
in the variegated material and sometimes higher up, but
they are less abundant than in the Tuscaloosa formation.
In some of the more hilly portions, especially a few miles
west of Bay Minette, the hillsides are strewn with blocks
and plates of coarse blackish ferruginous sandstone, ex-
actly like that already described for region 6B. (In both
regions it is a favorite material for the construction of
chimneys in the rural districts.) Mud is almost as scarce
as lime in this region, so that traveling in wet weather
is much less disagreeable here than it is in some regions
farther inland.

Tepography and hydrography.—The topography dif-
fers little from that produced by normal erosion. In
most places it is undulating, with streams well devel-
oped, and valleys 10 to 50 feet deep. Some of the smaller
valleys are rather narrow and V-shaped, while the other
extreme, best developed in Washington County, is broad
and savanna-like, with the surface perpetually moist, and
ventilated by crawfish-holes. The hills are smooth and
rounded, except in the rocky places, and the highest are
about 350 feet above sea-level. In the southern part of
Clarke County the small remnant of this kind of country
between the two large rivers stands so high and has been
so deeply dissected by erosion that the topography is as

*Some geologists now regard both the red loam and the sand as
mere products of weathering from the material below, but there
seems to be about as much evidence against this hypothesis as
there is in favor of it.

13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 115

rugged as in the central long-leaf pine hills previously de-
scribed. (The vegetation too is almost identical.)

Flat areas are chiefly confined to uplands remote from
streams, where the original level surface of the sedimen-
tary deposits has been scarcely affected by erosion as
yet. One such area traverses the center of Baldwin
County from north to south, with a gentle slope south-
ward. It is rather narrow at Bay Minette, but widens
considerably southward, where the lower altitude gives
the streams less eroding power. Along some of the
rivers and on the west side of Mobile Bay there are level
areas probably of the nature of terraces, backed by low
hills. (The monotonous flat country which borders the
coast of South Carolina, Georgia and East Florida, ex-
tending over 50 miles inland in some places, has no coun-
terpart in Alabama, where undulating hills come right
down to tide-water, or break off in high bluffs, as on the
east side of Mobile Bay.) In both kinds of flat areas
there are many shallow ponds much like those in the
lime-sink region previously described. Salamander hills
are fairly common east of the Tombigbee River, but are
not known west of there, either because the animal that
makes them (Geomys T'uza) has never been able to cross
that river, or because the soil is not sandy enough for it
_there, or both.

The streams traversing this region may be divided
into three classes: (1) the large rivers, such as the Ala-
bama and Tombigbee, which originate outside of the
coastal plain and are always muddy, and fluctuate con-
siderably with the seasons; (2) rivers like the Conecuh,
Pea and Choctawhatchee, which rise in the older parts of
the coastal plain and always carry some mud in suspen-
sion and some lime in solution, but fluctuate less than
those in the first class; (3) still smaller streams, most of
them no larger than creeks, which originate within the
pine hills region. The last-named are usually coffee-col-
ored from peaty matter in solution and suspension, al-
most free from lime, mud, and other mineral substances,
and not subject to much fluctuation. Every stream is
bordered by more or less swamp, but the three kinds of
swamp show important differences in vegetation.

116 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

The water of springs and wells in the superficial clays
and sands of this region and adjacent parts of Florida is
exceptionally pure.

Climate.—The climatological data for Citronelle,
Flomaton, Daphne and Mobile show that this region has
an average temperature of about 67° and a growing sea-
son of about 270 days. The rainfall is not only heavier
than in other parts of the state (about 59 inches annual-
ly), but, what is probably equally important to the vege-
tation, the summers are decidedly wetter than the win-
ters, a fact which tends to keep the ground-water level
more constant than it is elsewhere, and retards the proc-
esses of soil weathering to some extent.

Forest types.—As in the region last described, the
greater part of the area has been covered with open
park-like forests of long-leaf pine, subject to frequent
fires which tend to keep down underbrush. The herbace-
ous vegetation of these forests is as characteristic as the
pines. Near some of the streams, especially in their
forks and on bluffs, where fire is practically barred, the
forests are of the hammock type. Of the three kinds of
swamps above mentioned, the non-alluvial peaty ones
bordering the smaller streams are much the most numer-
ous. The vegetation of shallow ponds is much like that
of similar habitats in the lime-sink region.

LIST OF TREES.

0 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Always in sight

70-5
4-6 Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Ponds and swamps
2-3 Pinus Taeda - Short-leaf pine Creek bottoms, ete.
0-0 Pinus serotina Black pine Non-alluvial
| swamps
1-1 Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Richer uplands
0-1 Pinus glabra Spruce pine Hammocks and
| bluffs
0-0 Taxodium distichum (River) cypress Larger swamps
3-5 Taxodiumimbricarium (Pond) cypress |Pords, etc.
1-1 Chamaecyparis thyoides Juniper 'Non-alluyial
| Swamps
0-0 Hicoria aquatica (Swamp) hick- |
ory ‘Muddy swamps
0-0 Hicoria alba ‘Hickory Richer uplands
0-0 Hicoria glabra \((Pignut) hick-

ory Dry woods

13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 117

LIST OF TREES.—Continued.

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NrFOoOSCOorFNNF

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WONOCOOCOrFNWWEH

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ocoooo fo SCOWNS

Myrica cerifera
Salix nigra
Carpinus Caroliniana
Ostrya Virginiana
Betula nigra

Fagus grandifolia
Quercus alba
Quercus stellata
Quercus Margaretta
Quercus lyrata
Quercus Michauxii

Quercus geminata

Quercus falcata
Quercus Catesbaei
Quercus Marylandica
Quercus cinerea
Quercus nigra
Quercus laurifolia
Quercus Phellos
Magnolia grandiflora
Magnolia glauca

Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar

Persea pubescens

Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum

Platanus occidentalis
Crataegus viridis
Crataegus aestivalis
Cyrilla racemiflora

Cliftonia monophylla

Ilex opaca

Ilex myrtifolia

Ilex vomitoria

Acer rubrum
Gordonia Lasianthus

Aralia spinosa

Cornus florida

Nyssa biflora

Nyssa uniflora
Oxydendron arboreum

Batodendron arboreum —_Sparkleberry

Diospyros Virginiana
Halesia diptera
Symplocos tinctoria
Osmanthus Americana

‘Swamp chest-

(Scrub) live

(Red) maple

Hammocks, etc.
Along rivers

River bottoms, etc.
Bluffs, ete.

Along rivers
Bottoms

Bottoms

Dry woods

Dry sand

Muddy bottoms

Muddy bottoms
Dry sandy banks

Clayey uplands
Sandy pine woods

Black-jack oak Dry soils

Pine woods

Creek swamps, ete.

Hammocks

Bottoms

‘Hammocks

| Non-alluvial

| Swamps

‘Branch-swamps

\Non-alluvial

| swamps

‘Various situations

|River-banks

Muddy swamps

‘Shallow ponds

Branch-swamps,
evc;

‘Non-alluvial
swamps

‘Hammocks

Shallow ponds

Hammocks

Swamps

‘Non-alluvial

| swamps

‘Hammocks

Dry woods

Ponds and swamps

River-swamps

‘Bluffs and ham-

/ mocks

Sandy hammocks,
ete!

‘Sandy banks

/Hammocks

‘Hammocks

118 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

According to the above figures about 35% of the spe-
cies and 84% of the individual trees in the original for-
ests were evergreen. The oaks, although of more than
a dozen species, make up even less of the total forests
than they do in the lime-sink region, and other deciduous
trees are equally scarce. The difference between the
summer and winter aspects of the forests is therefore
not very striking.

One noteworthy tree which in Alabama is confined to
this region is the juniper, Chamaecyparis. It grows
near the coast as far north as New Hampshire, but there
are some large gaps in its range, especially in Georgia.
Wherever it is found it seems to indicate exceptionally
pure water. Some of Mobile’s water-supply comes from
swamps in which this tree grows (as is true also of
Brooklyn, N. Y.). Gordonia Lasianthus, a bay-like tree
so rare in Alabama that the natives do not seem to have
any name for it, also appears for the first time in this
list. It is more common in Georgia and North Carolina.

Population, ete.—Excluding Mobile County, which
contains a city built up largely by foreign trade and
therefore to a large extent independent of the natural
resources of the surrounding country, this region had in
1910 only about 15 inhabitants to the square mile, two-
thirds of them white. This was an increase of about
45% in ten years. For the last 25 years or so the in-
crease of population in this region and in the correspond-
ing parts of Georgia, Florida and Mississippi has been al-
most without precedent in the eastern United States.
Some of the counties have just about doubled in popula-
tion. This rapid increase has boosted the price of land
inordinately, and today the average price of the once de-
spised poor sandy pine land in this and the adjoining
lime-sink region is actually higher than that of some in
the black belt, once regarded as the most desirable farm
land in the whole state. As yet probably not more than
25% of the area is under cultivation, but the pine forests
have been cut over again and again, so that the present
stand of timber must be considerably less than half of
what it was originally.

13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 119

Some of the gloomy predictions made in the last cen-
tury with reference to the forests of this region have not
been realized, however. Dr. Mohr, in his valuable re-
port on the forests of Alabama in the 9th volume of the
Tenth Census (Mohr 3 in bibliography), writing in 1880,
expressed himself as follows:

“A quarter of a century ago a pine forest, unequaled in the
magnificence of its tree growth, and supposed at that time to con-
tain an inexhaustible supply of timber, covered Baldwin County
through its whole extent. Today this forest, from the line of the
Mobile and Montgomery Railroad, along the eastern shore of Mo-
bile Bay, and along all the water-courses as far as Bon Secours
Bay, upon the Gulf, is entirely destroyed, and presents a picture of
ruin and utter desolation painful to behold.”

“The mills situated on Perdido River and Bay depend entirely
for their present and future supply of logs upon this forest of
southern Baldwin County, although I learn that it is expected to
supply them during the next five years only, even if their produc-
tion of lumber does not increase.”

“The first turpentine distilleries were established on the Gulf
coast a little more than a quarter of a century avo, along Fish
River on the eastern and Dog River on the western shores of Mo-
bile Bay. The business soon assumed such proportions as to lead
to the destruction of the forests covering hundreds of square
miles, particularly in Baldwin County. The production of naval
stores in this county, as well as in the lower part of Mobile Coun-
ty, has at present nearly ceased, on account of the exhaustion of
the forest.”

Smith and Johnson, writing of Washington County in
1894 (Smith 7 in bibliography), say:

“The lands generally lie well, and though sandy seem to pro-
duce remunerative crops. However there can be no just apprecia-
tion of the agricultural capabilities of a county, where all the skill
and energy of the people are invested in the primitive forest. The
principal business of the county is to destroy the forest. Every
creek and branch that at high water can float a log is utilized for
‘logging’; and where the timber is too far from water, or from a
railroad, the people engage in ‘turpentining’. (The destruction
must go on.) The waste from ‘boxing’ is greater than from ‘log-
ging’; for in getting out timber for the mills the small trees are
Spared and may benefit another generation; but in the process for
obtaining the turpentine trees of all sizes are attacked; all die to-
gether, all get burnt up together.”

These accounts were written with all sincerity and
truthfulness, and abundant examples of the destruction
thus described can be seen in the same region today; and
yet the pine forests are not all gone yet. Over 25 years

120 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

after Dr. Mohr wrote as above, sawmills of the largest.
type were in operation along the railroads in Washing-
ton, Mobile and Baldwin Counties, and some of them are
still running. As for turpentine, one of the largest stills.
ever erected in the state is operating in the southern
part of Baldwin County at the present writing (1912),
and small ones are not uncommon.

In making the prophecies above quoted a few facts
were not taken sufficiently into consideration. One see-
ing trees cut down at a rapid rate can easily imagine
that it will take only a few years to devastate a whole
county; but Baldwin County alone covers a million acres,
and if this were all pine forest, and if 100 acres were
cleared every working day in the year, it would take
about 30 years to denude the whole county, even if no
young trees came up to take the place of the old ones.
The reproductive powers of the long-leaf pine are greater
than some have realized, too. In spite of too frequent
fires, it continues to take possession of cut-over land in
this region, producing trees large enough for turpentin-.
ing in about 25 years, and for lumber in 50 or 60,
until the farmer finally stops it.

The last-named contingency is what is happening at
the present time. The cut-over pine lands of Mobile and
Baldwin Counties are being rapidly settled by farmers,
largely from Michigan and other states in that part of
the country, and the amount of land on which timber is
allowed to grow is steadily decreasing.

Open range for cattle still seems to be the ruie in all
this region, but as soon as the cultivated area equals
half of any one county there will probably be a demand
for stock laws.

Forest exploitation and products.—Although the aver-
age capacity of the sawmills of this region, and the total
capacity in proportion to area and population, seems to
be exceeded a little by two or three of the regions cover-
ing less than 1,000 square miles each, and the total num-
ber of mills is less than in regions 6A and 10, this is in
many ways the principal lumbering region of the state.
The Southern Lumberman has collected information
from 57 mills, with an average capacity of 37,000 feet a

13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. - 2

day, and 12 other wood-working establishments. Over
one-third of the mills have tram-roads, averaging about
20 miles in length, and making in all 424 miles of log-
ging railroad, which is about as much as in all the rest of
the state combined, and averages about one mile to every
12 square miles. The largest mill in the state, with a
capacity of 275,000 feet of lumber a day, is located at
Lockhart, Covington County, and there are four or five
others which can cut as much as 100,000 feet a day, and
at least 20 that cut as much as 50,000. Nearly all the
mills cut long-leaf pine, and many cut little else, except
that they probably take slash pine wherever they can get
it, without reporting it separately. Twenty-eight of
them cut “short-leaf pine’ (which may include some
Pinus Elliottii, too), 11 cypress (probably of both spe-
cies), 4 juniper, 3 white oak, 3 red oak, 14 poplar, and 4
sweet gum.

Most of the mills are of the “big mill” type, with an
endless chain arrangement for carrying slabs out to one
side and dropping them into a fire, and many of them
have artifieial ponds into which the logs are dumped
from the cars and allowed to float there until the mill is
ready for them. This custom of soaking the logs in
water for a few days or weeks before sawing seems to
be much less prevalent east of Alabama than westward.
Likewise the former practice of digging small canals for
long distances, lining them with boards, and turning
enough water into them to float logs to the mill, a
method which has now been almost entirely superseded
by the tram-road. The methods of transporting logs
from the stump to the tram-road or stream or artificial
waterway also vary considerably from one place to an-
other. The enormous two-wheeled log-cart, which can
ride right over small logs without much difficulty, is per-
haps the commonest device for this purpose, but in some
places, especially westward, carts with four, six or eight
small wheels are now preferred. Steam skidders are used
to a limited extent, more for swamp timber than for pine,
however.

Naval stores are produced from the long-leaf and slash
pines at numerous turpentine stills, all of which look very

122 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

much alike, and their style probably does not change
much from one decade to another. This industry seems
to be in the hands of a comparatively few men, who are
born to the business, as it were, and migrate from place
to place as one crop of trees after another becomes ex-
hausted. The method of taking the crude gum from the
trees has changed considerably in the last ten years,
however, largely owing to the genius and foresight of
Dr. Charles H. Herty. Up to 1902 the practice of cut-
ting a ‘“‘box’”’ at the base of each tree to catch the gum
that trickled down the scarified face was universal
throughout our coastal plain. About that time, though,
Dr. Herty substituted for the wasteful and debilitating
“box” an earthenware cup hung on a nail, and conducted
the gum into it by means of two inclined galvanized iron
gutters.

This innovation was not received very enthusiastically
at first, but it now yields a handsome royalty to the in-
ventor, and the old method of ‘‘boxing” is almost aban-
doned. Besides Dr. Herty’s method there are at least a
dozen modifications or imitations of it in use at the pres- —
ent time. All of these methods tend not only to increase
the flow of gum and the quality of it, but also to pro-
long the life of the tree, especially by reducing the
chances of its being broken off at the base by the wind.

A few plants for the distillation of turpentine and va-
rious other products from pine stumps have been erected
in this part of Alabama and the corresponding parts of
other states, but somehow they do not always prove suc-
cessful.

The leading wood products of this region are lumber
(and its various derivatives such as flooring, laths, shin-
gles, doors, sash, blinds, crates, etc.), cross-ties and fuel,
nearly all from the long-leaf and slash pines. The use of
wood for locomotive fuel has already been mentioned un-
der the preceding region. (In both regions very little
coal is used outside of the larger cities.) Minor indus-
tries based on the same woods are the manufacture of
paving blocks, excelsior and furniture at Mobile. Cy-
press and juniper are worked up into poles, piles, and

14. THE MOBILE DELTA. 123

shingles, more rarely into cross-ties, and some of the
hardwoods into veneers, baskets, chairs, ete.

About 18% of the state’s industrial plants for the util-
ization of trees (not counting those producing nothing
. but rough lumber or naval stores) are in this region.
But many of them of course are in Mobile, where consid-
erable quantities of timber from other regions and even
from foreign countries are brought in. The rivers which
empty into Mobile Bay penetrate all the divisions of the
coastal plain, railroads radiate out from Mobile in sev-
eral directions, and steamers come in from many Gulf
and Caribbean ports.

14. The Mobile Delta.
(Figures 49, 50.)

From the confluence of the Alabama and Tombigbee
Rivers to the head of Mobile Bay, a distance of about 30
miles in a straight line or about twice as far by water,
extends a swampy region covering about 300 square
miles, which is essentially a delta, though narrower in
proportion to length than most deltas, on account of be-
ing hemmed in by hills on both sides. It is almost com-
pletely surrounded by the southwestern pine hills, and
if it was considerably smaller it might be regarded mere-
ly as one of the forest types of that region. But it has
some peculiarities which are due much more to its prox-
imity to the coast than to the nature of the adjacent
country, so that it seems best to treat it as a separate
and distinct region. Its nearest counterpart is probably
in the swamps at the mouth of the Apalachicola River,
which have recently been described by the writer.*

References.—Mohr 3 (525-527), Mohr 8 (124-125, 127-
128), Smith 6 (66-67), Smith 7 (290-292), Tuomey 2
(151).

Geology and soils.—The soil of the delta is alluvium
of unknown depth, doubtless coarsest in the immediate
vicinity of the stream channels, and more or less peaty
in the interstream areas. It cught to be well supplied
with all the essential elements of fertility.

On aia Ann. Rep. Fla. Geol. Surv. 235-237; Torreya 11:225-234.

124 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Topography and hydrography.—The whole area of
_course lies close to sea-level, with a gradual ascent to the
northward. At any particular latitude the banks of the
channels are the highest points, and at the upper end of
the delta these may be 15 or 20 feet above sea-level.
The channels form an intricate network, and the largest
ones are the Mobile River on the west side and the
Tensas (or Tensaw) on the east. Both are navigable,
but the Mobile River is the principal one used by steam-
boats going up into the interior. The water is always
more or less muddy, but it cannot fluctuate much with
the seasons, on account of its nearness to the Gulf. At
the head of the bay or mouth of the rivers the seasonal
fluctuation is of course almost nothing, or less than the
semi-diurnal tidal fluctuation, while at the head of the
delta the river may rise as much as 10 or 15 feet, and
the tide is perceptible only when the water is pretty low.

Climate.—The climatic data for Mobile, at the south-
ern end of the delta, are probably sufficiently representa-
tive for the whole area, and these can be found in the
appendix. As far as the water-level in the swamps is
concerned, that of course depends less on local climatic
conditions than on the rainfall in the interior of the
state.

Forest types.—It has been found that the amount of
seasonal fluctuation of water is a factor of fundamental
importance to swamp vegetation; and the local distribu-
tion of trees in the delta can be correlated best with this
factor. Near the mouths of the rivers several trees
abound which are totally absent from the alluvial
swamps farther inland, but are common enough in the
non-alluvial swamps of smaller streams in the neighbor-
ing pine hills. At any given latitude in the delta the
seasonal fluctuation is greatest along the channels, and
the trees more characteristic of alluvial swamps reach
their coastward limits in such situations. At the very
extremity of the delta, where the seasonal! fluctuation is
negligible, conditions are unsuitable for trees, and the
vegetation is mostly marsh instead of swamp; perhaps
because trees cannot germinate in soil perpetually sub-
merged.

14. THE MOBILE DELTA. 125

The following trees were observed on July 21 and 22,
1911, and June 16, 1912, along the L. & N. R. R., which
crosses the delta close to its lower end. Upstream the
forests of course gradually assume the character of ordi-
- nary alluvial swamps, so that a section a few miles
higher up would give a somewhat different analysis.

LIST OF TREES.

30-10 Taxodium distichum eee Common
8-11 Salix nigra |Willow : Mostly in open
places
5-7 Populus heterophylla Cottonwood |
0-1 Ulmus Americana Elm |
13-16 Magnolia glauca ‘Bay ‘Common
0-0 Persea pubescens |Red bay
6-8 Liquidambar Styracifia Sweet gum
5-7 Acer rubrum |(Red) maple
27-34 Nyssa biflora ‘Black gum Common
2-2 Nyssa uniflora ‘Tupelo gum Along main
channels
2-2 Fraxinus sp. Ash

There are only two evergreens, the bays, which are es-
timated to have made up 13% of the original forests in
the lower parts of the delta. Pines and oaks are both ab-
sent, the soil being probably too rich for the former and
too wet for the latter. Most of the trees visible from the
railroad, especially the black gum, have rather crooked
trunks, more so than the same species in other habitats.
This feature together with the density of the forest re-
minds one a good deal of some tropical forests.

Economic features.—The delta is too wet for cultiva-
tion and permanent human habitations, so that at least
99% of it is still covered with forests. A great deal of
the cypress and some of the tupelo gum and a few other
trees has been cut out, the cypress mostly for shingles.
Cigar-boxes are said to have been made from the tupelo
gum in Mobile, and the chair-factory there probably
draws a good deal of its raw material from this same
region. The cutting of timber is done mostly when the
water is highest, and the logs then floated out.

Five of the sawmills located at tide-water in Mobile
County, with an average capacity of 40,000 feet a day,

126 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

cut cypress and tupelo gum, doubtless derived mostly
from the delta. Two of these same mills also cut cot-
tonwood (probably two species), 3 sweet gum, and 2 ash.

15. The Coast Strip.
(Figures 51-53.)

In some places the pine forests of region 13 come to
within a few feet of tide-water, as if the sea had been en-
croaching on the land very recently; but there are many
places in the two maritime counties where other types of
vegetation, not belonging to that region, intervene be-
tween the long-leaf pine forests and salt water, and these
must be regarded as a distinct region, though covering
perhaps not more than 150 square miles in Alabama.
Our coast region is part of a strip that borders the Gulf
coast from the mouth of the Ocklocknee River in Middle
Florida to the Pearl River in Mississippi. East of Mo-
bile Bay it is mostly mainland, but west of there it is
chiefly confined to a chain of narrow islands several
miles off shore, the neighboring mainland belonging
mostly to region 13.

References.—Mohr 8 (129-133), Smith 6 (66-67),
Smith 7 (290-291), Tuomey 2 (148-149), and U. S. soil
surveys of Baldwin and Mobile Counties.

Soil, topography, etc—The greater part of the coast
region consists of dunes of quartz sand, most of them
now stationary and held together by sparse vegetation.
The soil of the stationary dunes is extremely sterile,
nearly all soluble matter probably having been leached
out long ago, and is dazzling white in the sunshine. In
the moving dunes the sand has a slight tinge of buff.
Where the dunes rest on the mainland one finds behind
them and among them low flat damp sandy areas sup-
porting a slender growth of pines. Cn the banks of
some of the bays and estuaries are mounds of oyster
shells whose contents are supposed to have furnished
food for some pre-historic race of men, and these mounds
have some characteristic plants on them. In bays well
protected from wind and fresh water there are small
areas of salt marsh.

15. THE COAST STRIP. 127

Climate.—The climate of the coast differs from that at
Mobile and Daphne chiefly in the amount of wind. As on
most other coasts, the wind blows pretty strongly in-
shore most of the time, and this is one condition that
hinders the growth of trees with broad thin leaves.

Forest types.—The outer or moving dunes, as well as
the salt marshes, are essentially treeless. The station-
ary dunes nearest the sea support a sparse growth of
stunted evergreen small trees and shrubs, while some
that lie a mile or so inland and are more protected from
the wind have a more luxuriant vegetation of the ham-
mock type. The damp sandy flats are mostly covered
with slender slash pines and a dense growth of ever-
green shrubbery, similar in aspect to the pocosins of
eastern North Carolina. On the loamy shores of bays
and estuaries, and especially on the shell mounds, are a
few trees that prefer richer soil. Some of these last are
common in the interior of the state, and some are almost
confined to the coast region. Leguminous plants seem
to be entirely absent from the stationary dunes, as they
are from the very similar “scrub” of peninsular Florida,
and from the somewhat similar ‘“‘jack pine plains” of
Michigan.

Fire is a negligible factor in the coast region, partly
because in most places there is not enough grass to feed
flames, and partly because the area is so dissected by
waterways that even if a fire should start it would not
be likely to spread far.

It is difficult to make quantitative estimates of the
trees in such a limited and diversified area, and the per-
centage numbers are therefore omitted from the follow-
ing lists. The principal species which attain the dimen-
sions of trees are as follows:

Pinus Ellicttii [Slash pine Damp flats

Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Bay shores mostly
Juniperus Virginiana Bay shores mostly
Pinus clausa Cedar Sheltered dunes
Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hickory Hammocks
Quercus Virginiana Live oak Bay shores mostly
Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks

Liquidambar Styraciflua |Sweet gum Bay shores mostly

128 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

In the Tennessee valley there is little uncertainty
about where to draw the line between trees and shrubs,
but as we go southward the difficulty of making this
distinction increases. In the coast region especially
there are several species which become small trees far-
ther inland or in other states, but are here nothing but
shrubs. Among them may be mentioned the following:

|

Myrica cerifera Myrtle Marshes, etc.
Quercus geminata Live oak Stationary dunes
Quercus myrtifolia Stationary dunes
Cliftonia monophylla Tyty Damp pine flats
Cyrilla racemifiora Tyty Damp pine flats

Probably at least 90% of the trees of the coast region
are evergreen. One species, Pinus clausa, is in Alabama
confined to this region, and the few trees of it in the
southern part of Baldwin County are the only ones
known outside of Florida. ©

Economic features.—Practically none of the area is
cultivated, and the dunes are uninhabited except for a
few summer cottages, fishermen’s shacks, ete. In days
gone by some of the live oak was used in shipbuilding,
but the forests at present seem to be of little economic
importance. The cedars are mostly too gnarled or too de-
cayed to make pencil-wood, but they may be used in a
limited way for fence-posts and small parts of boats.
There are no restrictions on the ranging of cattle, and
small herds eke out a scanty existence on the islands,
where the forage is at least green throughout the year,
if nothing else.

A little honey is made in the southern part of Baldwin
County, and doubtless some of it comes from the flowers
of trees and shrubs growing on and near the dunes, par-
ticularly the saw-palmetto and tyty.

ILLUSTRATIONS

(129)

130 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

BARRENS OF TENNESSEE, VALLEY.
(Pages 37-40.)

Fic. 1. Forest scene about four miles north of Athens,
Limestone Co. ‘Trees mostly short-leaf pine (Pinus Taeda),
with some red oak (Quercus falcata). March 14, 1913.

Fic. 2. Damp flatwoods about six miles north of Athens.
Trees mostly white oak (Quercus alba). March 14, 1913.

FIGURES 1, 2.

132 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

(Pages 40-47.)

Fic. 3. Dry oak woods on a sort of shelf of Hartselle sand-
stone on east slope of Smithers Mt., Madison Co. The large
tree at the right is a chestnut oak (Quercus Prinus), and the
others are mostly white oak (Q. alba). March 16, 1913.

Fic. 4. Mountain and valley scenery between Lim Rock
and Woodville, Jackson Co. (The densely wooded mountain
slopes rising abruptly from cultivated level valleys are very
characteristic of this county, north of the Tennessee River.)
The mountain in the distance is capped with sandstone of the
Coal Measures. ‘The nearer spur is of Bangor limestone, and
about half the trees on it are cedar (Juniperus Virginiana).
March) 15, 1913.

Fie. 5. Rich woods on north slope of mountain about two
miles east of Woodville. The most conspicuous trees in
the picture are scaly-bark hictory (Hicoria ovata), walnut
(Juglans nigra), elm (Ulmus) and lin (Tilia). March 15,
1913;

133

3-5.

«
.

FIGURES

ne

rs

&

13 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

TENNESSEE VALLEY PROPER.
(Pages 40-47.)
Fic. 6. Oak woods in rich red soil about two miles south
of New Decatur, Morgan Co. ‘Trees mostly red oak (Quercus
falcata). March 18, 1913.

Fic. 7. Low woods in valley of Flint Creek about three
miles north of Hartselle, Morgan Co. The trees are mostly
beech (Fagus), but there is a large sweet gum (Liquidambar)
near the center. March 13, 1913.

Fic, 8. Slough full of tupelo gum (Nyssa uniflora) about
a mile from the Tennessee River in Limestone Co., opposite
Decatur. March 14, 19138.

135

FIGURES 6-8.

eres

ie

136 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COAL PLATHAU REGION.

(Pages 47-52.)

Fic. 9. DeSoto Falls on Little River, Lookout Mountain,
DeKalb Co. The rock is sandstone of the Coal Measures.
(This place is mentioned several times in Mohr’s Plant Life
of Alabama.) Photograph by R. S$. Hodges, July 26, 1904.
The volume of water is doubtless considerably greater in

spring.

Fic. 10. Portion of the great natural bridge of Winston
Co., viewed from the head of the ravine which it spans. A
beech (Fagus) can be seen on the bridge, and a tall hemlock
or spruce pine (Tsuga Canadensis) in the ravine below, its
top extending beyond the limits of the picture. (This is prob-
ably the first photograph of a hemlock—or a natural bridge—
in Alabama ever published.) The white specks around the
base of the hemlock are the large fallen leaves of the cucumber
tree (Magnolia macrophylla), lying upside down. November
Vitae

137

FIGURES 9, 10.

138 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COAL, PLATEAU IRE CION:

(Pages 47-52.)

Fic. 11. Looking south across the “gulf” on southeast side
of Chandler Mt., St. Clair, Co., from top of a perpendicular
sandstone cliff about 100 feet high. Shows the level summit
and steep slope characteristic of the plateaus of this region.
September de aioi:

Fic. 12. Looking down gorge of Little River on Lookout
Mountain from crest of the lowest falls, east of Fort Payne
and about ten miles below DeSoto Falls. Shows the right or
_ DeKalb County bank. Aug. 30, 1911.

Fic. 13. Dry woods on Sand Mountain not far from the
Calvert Prong of the Locust Fork of the Warrior River,
northwest of Oneonta, Blount Co. ‘Trees mostly post oak
(Quercus stellata), red oak (Q. falcata), and short-leaf pine
(Pinus echinata). May 13, 1906.

FIGURES 11-15.

140 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Fic. 14. Long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) forest about 4%
miles north of Jasper, Walker Co. (This is the outlying area
of long-leaf pine mentioned on page 54.) April 1, 1906.

Fic. 15. Cultivated creek bottoms about half way between
Oakman and Patton Junction, Walker Co., with wooded bluffs
rising abruptly from them. ‘The trees on the bluffs, especially
near their summits, are mostly cliff pine (Pinus Virginiana),
Were. Lode

FIGURES 14, 15.

DAL B *)

Rey,

ie |
he
if.)

1]

15

142 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COOSA VALLEY REGION.
(Pages 58-63.)

Fic. 16. Chert hills near Stemly, Talladega Co.; looking
toward Alpine Mountain. This area was once covered with
a splendid forest of long-leaf pine, the best of which has been
cut off, but young trees of the same species are springing up
again in abundance. May 21, 1906.

Fic. 1%. Low flatwoods in Jones’s Valley near McCalla,
Jefferson Co. ‘Trees mostly black gum (Nyssa sylvatica),
sweet gum (Liquidambar), and short-leaf pine (Pinus Taeda).
Oct. 5, 1912.

143

FIGURES 16, 17.

16

Ct

i144 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COOSA VALLEY REGION.

Fic. 18. Cedars (Juniperus) on limestone outcrops in Jones’s
Valley between Grasselli and Wheeling, Jefferson Co. View
taken from A. B. & A. R. R. embankment looking eastward
toward Red Mountain. Sept. 30, 1912.

BLUE RIDGE.
(Pages 64-66.)

Fic. 19. View of the Blue Ridge from a hill about two
miles north of Hollins, Clay Co. ‘Trees mostly long-leaf pine,
with some black-jack oak (Quercus Marylandica) in fore-
ground. April 14, 1906.

Fic. 20. Scene on Cedar Mountain, a spur of the Blue
Ridge near Pyriton, Clay Co., looking northwest toward the
main ridge. In the foreground are our longest and shortest
leaved pines (Pinus palustris and P. Virginiana, which do
not associate in many places, because one likes fire and the
other does not), and chestnut oak (Quercus Prinus). June
TON:

sk

FIGURES 18-20. 145

10G

146 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

PIEDMONT REGION.

(Pages 67-71.)

Fic. 21. Dry woods about two miles north of Roanoke,
Randolph Co., with long-leaf pine, dogwood (in bloom), ete.
April 18, 1906.

Fic. 22. Steep hillside of rotten gneiss along Chestnut
Creek about three miles below Verbena, Chilton Co., looking
westward up the creek. Trees mostly long-leaf pine. Febru-
ary 2, 1906,

147
FIGURES 21, 22. |

Wy ohra. siete epciay rate
de SDM cc Pein oe OL RPS

148 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

PIEDMONT REGION.
(Pages 67-71.)

Fre, 23. Looking up Coosa River from hills near site of
proposed “Lock 12,” Chilton Co, (Opposite bank is Coosa
Co.) Water rather high from recent rains, so that small
islands are submerged. Feb. 1, 1913. This being a winter
scene gives a pretty good idea of the relative abundance of
evergreens and hardwoods. ‘The pines are mostly short-leaf
(Pinus echinata). (The construction of a 70-foot dam at
this point, now in progress, will make great changes in this
landscape, and forever destroy the opportunity for some
phases of scientific research here. )

Fie. 24. Big Sandy Creek at Dadeville power-house shoals,
southwest of Dadeville, Tallapoosa Co. One long-leaf pine
(Pinus palustris) 11 middle of shoals, and many more on
neighboring hills. (This tree can be found in similar situa-
tions in mid-stream at several places in the ‘Tallapoosa River
and its tributaries, but apparently nowhere else.) April 16,
1906.

149

24,

€

5)
a0,

FIGURES

23

24

150 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

SHORT-LEAF PI!
o_

(Pages 7

NE BELT.
)

an
ad.

Fic. 25. Dry woods among low hills about six miles east
of Tuscaloosa. ‘Trees mostly short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata),
the nearest one 20 inches in diameter. A little to the right
of it is a chestnut oak (Quercus Prinus). Oct. 13, 1911.

Fic. 26. Non-alluvial swamp of Cribbs’s Creek, about two
miles south of Tuscaloosa. Trees mostly bay (Magnolia
glauca) and black gum (Nyssa biflora). Dec. 28, 1912.

Fic. 27. Swamp of Big Creek, about four miles west of
Northport, Tuscaloosa Co. Trees mostly cypress (Taxodium
distichum) and tupelo gum (Nyssa uniflora). This place is
only a few miles from the Warrior River, and less than a week
before it had been inundated to a depth of 13 feet (as shown
by mud left on the trees) by high water from the river.
March 4, 1913.

9%

FIGURES 25-2

7

152 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

CENTRAL LONG-BEAPTEINE “HIS:
(Pages 78-81.)

Fic. 28. Steep hillside with virgin forest of long-leaf pine
and a little dogwood, near northeastern corner of Hale Co.
May 27, 1911.

Fic. 29. Long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) and turkey oak
(Quercus Catesbaei, at left) on a high rocky hill about a mile
south of Pearson, Tuscaloosa Co. May 13, 1911.

Fic 30. Summit of same hill, showing ledges of laminated
.ferruginous sandstone. May 13, 1911.

154 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

BLACKS BEA
(Pages 84-94.)

Fic. 31. Typical black belt upland scene, with whitish
Selma chalk exposed in gullies, about a mile north of Emelle,
Sumter Co., looking east. A few cedars (Juniperus Vur-
giniana) scattered in middle distance. This area may have
been partly treeless originally ; but all the forest was cut away

long ago, and it is now mostly pasture. Feb, 27, 1913.

Fic. 32. Exposure of Selma chalk with abundance of small
cedar trees, about a mile southwest of Epes, Sumter Co. April
15, 201:3.

Fic. 33. Oak woods in rich soil derived from the Selma
chalk, about a mile north of Panola, Sumter Co. Evergreens
are entirely absent, probably because the rich soil enables the
hardwoods to monopolize the situation. Feb. 26, 1913.

155

156 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

BLACK BEET.
(Pages 84-94.)

Fic. 34. Hardwood forest in very rich bottom-land near
Bodka Creek, about seven miles south of Geiger, Sumter Co.
The largest and commonest tree in the picture is hackberry
(Celtis). Sycamore (Platanus) and box elder (Negundo)
are also present, and some grape vines (Vitis) are visible.
Feb. 27, 1913.

34,

FIGURE

2 “ i
Ee uliowe y
> Gionles caekccts a
ince |
Seni ee ata
a ia

158 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

POST OAK FEATWOODS.

(Pages 95-97.)

Fic. 35. Post-oak flatwoods near Curl, Sumter Co. Trees
mostly short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata) and post oak (Quercus
stellata). ‘The best pines have been cut out. Feb. 28, 1913.
This is probably the first photograph of the vegetation of this
region ever published.

SOULE RING RE DEES:
(Pages 97-103.)

Fic. 36. Looking southeast across valley of Bogue Loosa
Creek in the “mountains” of Choctaw Co., at Land, a new
flag station about two miles south of West Butler, on a rail-
road that has been in operation only about a year. ‘Trees in
foreground mostly short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata). ‘The
nearest house has a chimney of Burhstone, the rock which
makes these mountains. Many piles of split oak stave-bolts
can be seen around the settlement. In this mountain country,
as in the real mountains farther inland, clearings and houses
are chiefly confined to the valleys. April 17, 1913.

€
e

36.

FIGURES 35,

a ane

‘y

160 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

SOUTHERN RED HILLS.

(Pages 97-103.)

Fic. 37%. Looking south across fields and hills two miles
east of Troy, Pike Co, In this vicinity the uplands are nearly
all under cultivation, and forests confined to narrow valleys
and swamps. ‘The most conspicuous trees are short-leaf pines.
(This is in the belt in which long-leaf pine is rare or absent,
mentioned on page 99.) March 27, 1913.

Fic. 38. Scene in the “pocosin”’ between Troy and Brun-
didge, Pike Co. Trees mostly evergreen oak (Quercus laurt-
folia), with undergrowth of wild olive (Osmanthus) and
witch-hazel (Hamamelis). March 27, 1913.

Fic. 39. Flat pine woods between Yantley and Tickabum
Creeks, about two miles north of Lisman, Choctaw Co. The
pines are long-leaf (Pinus palustris) and short-leaf (P. Taeda)
in about equal proportions. (The largest tree at the left is
P. palustris, and the largest in the right half of the picture
P, Taeda.) April 18, 1913.

161

FIGURES 37-39.

8

2
oO

<2 ST ee

39

11G

162 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIME “Hive:
(Pages 103-107.)

Fic. 40. Overhanging cliff of St. Stephens white limestone
near Salt Creek, about six miles south of Jackson, Clarke Co.,
surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. (The plane surfaces on
the cliff are where some of the rock has been sawed off in
years past for building purposes.) Sept. 25, 1912.

FIGURE 40. 163

164 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

LIME-SINK REGION.
(Pages 108-113.)

Fic. 41. Blue Pond, a large lime-sink holding water, in
pine forests in southwestern part of Covington Co., near Dixie -
P.-O:. Photograph by Dr. E.. A:. Smith and R. S. Hodges;
Aug. 25, 1902. (Previously published in Smith 9, plate 17A.)

Fic. 42. Shallow cypress pond near southeastern corner of
Covington Co. The commonest tree is pond cypress (Ta.vo-
dium imbricarium), and the largest tree at the right is a slash —
pine (Pinus Elliottii), 40 inches in diameter. The smaller
growth is mostly yaupon (/lex myrtifolia). July 26, 1911.

165

7a

FIGURES 41, 4

166 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

SUUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS:
(Pages 115-123.)

Fic. 43. Looking eastward down a small dry valley in pine
hills, two miles south of Bay Minette, Baldwin Co. Sides of
valley unusually steep for this region, and perhaps prevented
from washing into gullies by the abundance of ferruginous
pebbles strewn over the surface. ‘Trees nearly all long-leaf
pine (Pinus palustris) ; the best ones cut for lumber years ago.
July, 21; 1044;

Hic: 44. :Savanna in pine forests in T.7 S., R..5 E:, abous
seven miles west of Lillian, Baldwin Co. The trees are mostly
pond cypress (Taxrodium imbricarium) and slash pine (Pinus
Elliottii). Photograph by Dr. E. A. Smith and R. S$. Hodges,
Aug. 10, 1902. (Previously published in Smith 9, plate 22.)

FIGURES 43, 44.

44

168 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

SOUTHWESTERN (PINE HELIS:
(Pages 113-123.)

Fic. 45. Primeval. forest of long-leaf pine in T. 6 S., R.
3 E., about 25 miles south of Bay Minette and 10 miles west
of Fairhope, Baldwin Co. Photograph by Dr. E. A. Smith
and3R..$. Hodges, Aug. 13. 1902.

FIGURE 45.

45

170 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.
INE. HILES.
3

Fic. 46. Long-leaf pine forest (“round timber’) near
Lockhart, Covington Co., about % mile from the largest saw-
mill in the state. A few of the trees have been cut out, pre-
sumably by settlers, but otherwise the forest seems to be in its
natural condition. This view illustrates the absence of under-
brush and the undulating topography characteristic of this
region, among other things. July 27, 1911.

Fic. 47. A scene of desolation, about four miles southeast
of Grand Bay station, Mobile Co. Cut-over long-leaf pine

land with almost no signs of a second crop of trees. June
15.19.

Fic. 48. More hopeful conditions, about a mile south of
the preceding scene. Many young long-leaf pines springing
up, which will make lumber for another generation if the
farmers and turpentine men permit. June 15, 1912.

FIGURES 46-48. 171

Li2 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

MOBILE DELTA.

(Pages 123-126.)

Fic. 49. Estuarine swamps of Tensaw River, looking north
from railroad embankment near [lurricane station, Baldwin
Co. Trees mostly black gum (Nyssa biflora).. July 22, 1911.

Frc. 50. Interior of swamp near same place, same date.

67

0S

174 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COAST SiRiEE:
(Pages 126-128.)

Fic. 51. Scene along small salt bayou at Coden, Mobile
Co. Trees mostly live oak (Quercus Virginiana). Photo-
graph by Dr. E. A. Smith and R. S. Hodges, Aug. 1, 1902.

FIGURE 51. 175

51

176 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

COAST SERGE
(Pages 126-128.)

Fic. 52. Damp sandy pine flats about % mile south of
Orange Beach P. O., Baldwin Co., looking seaward. ‘Trees
all slash pine (Pinus Elliottii), with an undergrowth of tyty

bushes (Cliftomia and Cyrilla) and other evergreen shrub-
bery.. June: 13,, 1912:

Fic. 53... Scene among dunes south of Orange Beach (about
opposite west end of Florida), looking east across outlet of
Perdido Bay.. Trees in foreground mostly scrub live oak
(Quercus geminata). A few slash pines in the distance. June
12, 1912.

177

3.

e

FIGURES 52, 5

53

12G

178 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

THE. TURPENTINE INDUSTRY.

Fic. 54. Turpentine negro at work in a long-leaf pine
forest a few miles north of Bayou la Batre, Mobile Co. (prob-
ably near the place shown in fig. 47.) ‘Trees “boxed” in the
old barbarous way, for this was before cups and gutters were
introduced in Alabama. Photograph by Dr. E. A. Smith
and R. $. Hodges, July 31, 1902.

Fre. 55. Short-leaf pine (Pinus Taeda), two feet in diame-
ter, with five scarified faces for the production of turpentine,
in the lime hills belt about two miles north of Millry, Wash-
ington Co. This tree is being worked by the modern cup-
and-gutter method, the outfit used differing from Dr. Herty’s
original device only in the substitution of a galvanized iron
cup for a clay pot. The attempt to extract turpentine from
short-leaf pine is rather unusual, and probably not very suc-
cessiul. SAprilmio: W9u3.

Fic. 56. ‘Turpentine still in the lime hills near Frankville,
Washington Co. Rosin barrels at left, fuel at right. The
limestone chimney is very characteristic of this region, but
very unusual for a turpentine still, the vast majority of which
are in regions where no such rock is to be had. Photograph
by Dr. E. A. Smith and R. $. Hodges, Aug. 27, 1900.

FIGURES 54-56.

186 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

MISCELLANEOUS FOREST INDUSTRIES.

Fic. 57. ‘Turpentine still utilizing the gum from about
70,000 “boxes”—-or rather cups in this case,—southwest of
Brookwood, Tuscaloosa Co. At the left is the shop where
the rough pine barrels for rosin are made, a necessary adjunct
of every turpentine still. Some rosin strainers are lying on
the ground at the right. In the foreground is a runway on
which the barrels are rolled out to the road. April 15, 1911.

Fre. 58. Charcoal ovens at Childersburg, Talladega Co.
One is being filled with wood and one is burning. Feb. 3,
LOTS:

Fic. 59. Cedar posts and poles awaiting shipment at Wood-
ville, Jackson ‘Co. -March 15, 1913.

Fic. 60. Small sawmill cutting about 12,000 feet a day, of
short-leaf pine and hardwoods, on L. & N. R. R. about four
miles east of Tuscaloosa. Feb. 22, 1913.

181

FIGURES 57-60.

5

9

182 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

THE LUMBER INDUSTRY.

Fic. 61. Primitive log-train on tram-road with round pine
logs for rails, near boundary between Covington and Escam-
bia Cos. .(near same place as fig. 41.) Photograph by Dr.

co) 5 d
EK. A. Smith and R. S$. Hodges, Aug. 25, 1902.

Fic. 62. Modern log-train approaching the sawmill shown
in next picture. ‘The logs are probably all long-leaf pine, as
are the standing trees. July 27, 1911.

Fic. 63. The largest sawmill in Alabama (capacity 275,000
feet a day), Jackson Lumber Co., Lockhart, Covington Co.
Pond in foreground into which logs are dumped from the
train and soaked before sawing. Waste-burner at right. July
27, 1911. (There is a somewhat similar view of this mill
in the National Magazine for July, 1911,—vol. 34, p. 438.)

183

-65.

GURES 61

FI

APPENDIX A.

Scheme of Graphic Representation of Environmental
Factors for the Forests of Alabama.

N page 17 it was pointed out that the character of
the forest at any place is determined by the joint
action of many different factors, some more potent than
others, some acting directly and some indirectly, some
essentially uniform over considerable areas and some
varying much in short distances, some simple and some
complex. The diagram on the next page.seeks to bring
out some of these relations more clearly than it can be
done by words alone; though of course it is still far from
perfect.

For the sake of simplicity some factors whose effects
are not very well understood, and some which are much
less noticeable in Alabama than elsewhere, or affect
herbs much more than they do trees, or do not vary
enough within the limits of our state to make much dif-
ference, are omitted. (It should be borne in mind that °
for geographical purposes it is ee variable factors that
have any significance.)

Factors which vary too much in short distances to be
used in defining forest regions are enclosed in dotted cir-
cles, and those which are complex, i. e., which can vary
in more than one direction, are enclosed in double circles.
If space permitted some of the complex factors could be
separated into simple ones. For example, soil chemistry
is a complex factor, because of the large number of dif-
ferent substances contained in soils; and if we were con-
sidering that alone we might have a separate circle for
each mineral or element that is found in our soils.

A combination of a smooth and a dotted circle means
that some phases of the enclosed complex factor vary
greatly in short distances and some do not. In the case
of topography, for example, several hills and _ valleys,

(185)
13G

186 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS FOR ALABAMA FORESTS
ig

/DEPTH OF:

ky

SEASONAL’
DISTRIBUTION

A ee |

R.MH, 1913

Diagram showing relations of the most important environmental
factors in Alabama to the forests and to each other.

“Soil organisms” means all plants and animals, from bacteria
and fungi to moles and salamanders, which live underground or in
humus and have some influence on the soil. “Animals” means
those which travel above ground and carry seeds or pollen, or feed
on plants. “Population” refers primarily to density of population,
a simple factor.

APPENDIX A. 187

or north and south slopes, may be found on the same sec-
tion of land, but a particular type of topography may
prevail over hundreds of square miles.

The lines indicate the influences, and the arrows at
their ends the direction of influence; and where there are
arrows at both ends of a line the influence is reciprocal.
For example, climatic factors evidently affect animals,
while animals can hardly be said to have any influence on
climate. On the other hand, the relation between fire
and vegetation is reciprocal, for a forest fire could not
exist without vegetation growing thickly enough for it
to feed on.* Some lines representing very remote or un-
important influences are omitted, to avoid crowding the
diagram too much.

Any two factors which are not directly connected are
supposed to be independent of each other, or nearly so.
Geology and latitude seem to be the two fundamental
independent factors, and within the limits of as small a
part of the earth’s surface as Alabama, geology (i. e., the
structure of the earth’s crust) is the more important. It
seems to influence nearly everything else directly or in-
directly, through either topography or soil.

At some time in the not distant future it may be pos-
sible to devise formulas which will express the relative
abundance of certain trees, the percentage of evergreens,
or the yield of timber per acre, in terms of all these fac-
tors which can be expressed quantitatively.

*Obviously fire would be impossible in a desert, and consequent-
ly desert vegetation does not need to have any protection
against it.

APPENDIX B.

Climatological Statistics.

HESE are for only a few selected stations, not more
than four in any one region. They are copied or
computed mostly from Bulletin W of the U. S. Weather
Bureau, 1912, and from the 1911 summary of the Ala-
bama section of the same bureau. The significance of
the various columns of figures is explained on page 24.

ok 3 pe oS = an a9
Bo | Solec |eBe| Ee
ge | 8/88 [858] os
STATIONS. o® | SSl/os/BES! xa
2H 5 | y = So, ae
wa i s _ 148 AS ldachssas! a8
1B. TENNESSEE VALLEY i
Madison JS 2oe 2k ene eee eee 61.0|/____| 49.6] 31.4] 46.0
Decatur Ses RS eek ee 61.1] 193] 48.9) 29.2] 42.4
FLOGENCG: Babee 2s Si fe Ae 60.7| 215) 49.5) 33.1) 45:0
2B. COAL BASIN
Cordova 2 ee ee ee ee 61.4223) Stl S30 Azores
38. COOSA VALLEY
Gadsdeny f- e ee e 62.3] 214] 52.8] 31.2] 44.0
Wallade ga . 02 See oe eee ee 62.9} 218] 49.5| 32.2) 44.0
5. PIEDMONT REGION
Goodwaterayse tereatedls -» WP ee 62.9] 234} 52.1) 32.8) 45.0
Onpelikay, ®. pees Se See eee 63.6} 237| 51.4) 31.9] 44.4
6A. SHORT-LEAF PINE BELT
Hamilton’ 22S Teese 61.6} 205] 50.2) 29.0) 42.5
Tuscaloosa, e225 —e eee ele on ee 638.1] 228] 49.6] 31.3) 42.3
6C. EUTAW BELT
Monte OMe Iya a == eae 65.1] 248) 51.2) 31.3) 43.5
7. BLACK BELT
Wniontown === <2 se heen ee 65.0] 238) 48.6] 33.2) 45.5
Selinaw eS: 2s = 2. Eee 64.8) 240} 49.6) 31.0) 41.7
8. CHUNNENNUGGEE RIDGE, etc. |
Korte Deposit. 2222225 sa anne 64.7|____| 48.9} 32.7) 45.0
inion » Springs 222.2 ee See 64.6] 244) 54.4) 32.5) 45.0
Butatila 2s ao a ee ee 64.6} 240} 51.6] 36.0} 47.0
10. SOUTHERN RED HILLS
Pushinataha. (=) oo eae 64.8}____| 53.8] 31.8] 45.8
Thomasvillee 22 =e eee 64.9} 238] 48.3) 36.1!) 48.6
11. LIME HILLS
Bermudas: 2-2. ee 64,9|____] 49.9) 37.0] 48.8
13. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS | |
Citronella sees es 2 Sena ee 67.322) 56:9)" 39-4 a ee2
Plomaton- peste. 2. seen ee 66.2] 260] 57.8) 37.9] 49.9
Daphne = ass. ae eee here eee 67.2| 277| 62.0] 40.0) 51.6
Mobile: S22 aos. 2. eae eee 66.1] 279] 62.0] 40.0] 51.6

(188)

APPENDIX C.

List of Alabama Trees.

HIS list shows all the native trees mentioned in the
than four in any one region. They are copied or
whole state, except for a few species that are very rare
or imperfectly understood. The number prefixed to each
name indicates the approximate relative abundance of
the species at the present time, expressed in percentages
to the nearest integer. This list will be of interest chief-
ly to botanists, and the common names are omitted to
make room for brief statements of the local distribution
and habitat of each species. Other persons who may de-
sire to connect these technical names with the corre-
sponding common names can look them up in the index,
which will refer back to one or more pages on which the
common name of the species is given.

7 Pinus palustris Poor soils, mainly southw’d and e.-ward
ee eS OLtIt Sandy swamps and ponds, sou.-most ¢o’s
ao "Taeda In various situations, throughout

0 “ serotina Sandy swamps & bays, mostly s.e.-ward
4 ‘“ echinata Widely distributed in dry soils

i. glabra Hammocks in southern half of state

1 “ £Virginiana Rocky hills, northern half of state

Oo ~< “‘clausa Old dunes, Baldwin County

0 Tsuga Canadensis Ravines, etc., in plateau region

1 Taxodium distichum Swamps, nearly throughout the c. plain
1 i imbricarium |Ponds & savannas in southernmost co’s
0 Chamaecyparis thyoides |Non-alluvial swamps, s.-w. pine hills

2 Juniperus Virginiana Rock outcrops, especially limestone

0 Juglans nigra Richest soils, mostly northward

0 Hicoria aquatica Muddy swamps in coastal plain

il ovata Rich bottoms, etc., mostly northward

1 ee alba Dry woods, widely distributed

0 es glabra Dry woods, widely distributed

0 " microcarpa ? Chert ridges, Jefferson County

3 Salix nigra Along stream, most abundant northw’d
0 Populus deltoides River-banks, etc., mostly in coastal plain
0 a heterophylla Mobile delta

1 Carpinus Caroliniana Creek bottoms, etc., widely distributed

0 Ostrya Virginiana Rich woods and bluffs, nearly throughout
2 Betula nigra Along creeks and rivers, “ “

O. “) lente Sandstone cliffs in mountains

(189)

190 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.
3 Fagus grandifolia |Rich woods, common except near coast
0 Castanea dentata Among hills, mostly northward
ae pumila Dry woods, rather rare
Quercus alba Moderately rich soils, throughout
“ stellata |Dry woods, nearly throughout
* Margaretta Sandy soils in coastal plain
<< Durandii Mostly in caleareous soils
“ lyrata Muddyswamps&bottoms, mostly ec. plain
a Prinus Rocky slopes, mostly in hill country
¢ Muhlenbergii |Mostly in calcareous soils
ee Michauxii Bottoms, mostly in coastal plain
e Virginiana Mostly along coast and in calcareous soils
re geminata Sterile sand in southernmost counties
“6 faleata Dry woods, nearly throughout
- pagodaefolia |Bottoms, mostly in coastal plain
“ velutina Dry woods, mostly in hill country
S rubra Rich woods and bluffs, mostly northward
S Schneckii Flatwoods, bottoms, and calcareous soils
“ coccinea Dry woods, mostly northward
“ Catesbaei Dry sandy soil in coastal plain
«“ - Marylandica Driest soils, mostly clayey, throughout
“ cinerea Sandy soils, mostly in coastal plain
ss nigra Low grounds, nearly throughout
¢ laurifolia Mostly in coastal plain hammocks
& Phellos Bottoms and flatwoods, mostly northw’d
Ulmus Americana ‘Bottoms, ete.
&, ) valatay 5 ‘Bottoms, ete.
pe pe rh Richest soils, especially calcareous
“ serotina Rich woods, mostly in coal basin

SOSTSTSCOCOOCOOOCOCONBROOCOCOCOWHOOCOOCOBRHPHOOCOCOORCKHHENHENRFRRFPOCOOCOWOOFROCRrOCOONNSG

Planera aquatica
Celtis occidentalis
Morus rubra
Magnolia grandiflora

- glauca
acuminata
tripetala
pyramidata
macrophylla
Liriodendron Tulipifera
Asimina triloba
Persea Borbonia
«pubescens
Sassafras variifolium
Liquidambar Styraciflua
Platanus occidentalis
Amelanchier Canadensis
Malus angustifolia
Crataegus spathulata
by viridis
Michauxii?
Crus-galli?
aestivalis
Prunus Americana
a umbellata
serotina
Caroliniana

“cc

“

“

Banks of larger rivers in coastal plain
River-banks, etc.

Bottoms and other rich soils

Hammocks in southern half
Non-alluvial swamps, mostly in c. plain
Ravines and bluffs

Rich woods

Bluffs, etc., mostly in coastal plain
Ravines and bluffs

Damp woods and ravines, throughout
Bottoms; usually only a shrub

Bottoms in coastal plain

Non-alluvial swamps, mostly in ec. plain
Bluffs; and spread’g abundantly in fields
In various situations, throughout
Banks of streams; s.-ward on rivers only
Ravines and bluffs

Dry woods, mostly clay soil

Dry woods, mostly clay soil

Muddy bottoms

Sandy soils in coastal plain
Calcareous soils, mostly in black belt
Shallow ponds in southernmost counties
Rich woods, mostly northward

Dry woods

Bluffs; and spreading to roadsides, etc.
Mostly in coastal plain hammocks

SSSSSSCSCCSOHSCSCHHHENHWODOSCOWHOSCOCOOSOHOHSGOSO OH

APPENDIX C. 191

Cercis Canadensis
Gleditschia triacanthos
Cladrastis lutea
Robinia Pseudacacia
Cotinus Americanus
Cyrilla racemiflora
Cliftonia monophylla
Ilexopaca_..

“ myrtifolia
vomitoria
decidua
Acer Saccharum?

“ leucoderme
Floridanum
saccharinum
rubrum
Negundo
Aesculus octandra

ef Pavia
Tilia heterophylla ?
Gordonia Lasianthus
Cornus florida
Nyssa sylvatica

“. bitlora
uniflora
Oxydendron arboreum
Batodendron arboreum
Bumelia lanuginosa

cs lycioides
Diospyros Virginiana
Halesia Carolina

i diptera
Symplocos tinctoria
Fraxinus Americana

e quadrangulata

Caroliniana
Osmanthus Americana
Catalpa bignonioides
Viburnum rufidulum

“cc
“cc

“cc

“cc

Dry or rich woods, especially calcareous
Tennessee valley mostly

Bluffs of Tennessee and Warrior Rivers
‘Mostly on mountain slopes

Limestone slopes, Madison County
Mostly in creek swamps in coastal plain
'Non-alluvial swamps in sou.-most cos.
/Ravines, bluffs, hammocks, etc.

Shallow ponds in southernmost counties
‘Coastal plain hammocks; usually shrubby
Muddy bottoms; usually a shrub

‘Rich woods, northward

Bluffs, etc., mostly northward

Bluffs, etc., mostly southward

Along the larger rivers
‘Branch-swamps, etc., throughout
‘Banks of creeks and rivers

‘Rich woods, in Tennessee valley

‘Rich woods; common, but usually shrubby
‘Rich woods

Non-alluvial swamps in south’nmost cos
Dry woods, common throughout
Commonest northward

Swamps and ponds, mostly in ce. plain
Swamps and sloughs, mostly in c. plain
Ravines, bluffs, etc.

Dry woods and bluffs; usually a shrub
Sandy hammocks mostly

Calcareous soils mostly

Various habitats, perhaps not native
Rich woods, mostly northward

Sandy hammocks, etc., southward
Ravines, bluffs, hammocks, etc.

Rich woods, etc.

Limestone outcrops mostly

Swamps, mostly in coastal plain
Hammocks, mostly in coastal plain
Banks of rivers and large creeks

Dry and moderately rich woods

bama.)

This list contains the names of 121 species, 8 of which
are pines and 22 oaks. (Considering the percentage fig-
ures, it will be seen that the pines and oaks each consti-
tute about 20% of the present forest wealth of Ala-

It is probable that the total number of species,

excluding numerous recently described forms of Cratae-
gus which can be distinguished only by taxonomic spe-
cialists, will reach 140 or 150 when the state is thor-
oughly explored. The percentages of evergreens total
about 33.

s

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olin Thal sp. Sates fe Preset ‘ >

miei rey ita 2th a as “ lad Aah

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4 Sf7hiy. Sate ‘ah Cie 10534 YT fey nee

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Ar: Lente Hiviernye 2
3 eh 14g h# Pies ; of #. ay soso ch ut weak | "| »

28 oerequalfian erste Bre Mie Gotinlocrgid
feath oorp. Rae Tatehane Baw eae apres ke tH

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bolita R ‘ae deere ESI Ve ere inal. tert slates aa Sih
Ties ater able he pai) Peon Babes: ie
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aooece “We wader tetos ait
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ere SARE may a,* a) bf 3! ie FoR ali se ‘
<vorhderek aetanta peas adie: eg ane 8
fatod. ean neta ‘Yo 2 EN fonigaalt ie
. ? + een ee, be ‘Avely I “i La] poe ak

APPENDIX D.

Statistics Illustrating Present Condition of the Forests,
Rate of Exploitation, etc., by Regions.

HE subjoined table is compiled mainly from the

Southern Lumberman’s 1912 directory of Alabama
sawmills, described on page 32. It is somewhat similar
to one published in the Southern Lumberman for April
5, 1918 (Harper 8 in bibliography), but goes into a little
more detail in the treatment of geographical divisions,
and differs in a few other ways. In order to minimize er-
rors due to the possible incompleteness of the directory,
or to the inaccuracy of the writer’s computations, no ab-
solute figures are given, except for areas, which are eas-
ily verified. Everything else except the density of
population and capacity of the sawmills is expressed in
percentages, the accuracy of which is not affected so
much by incompleteness of the data. Regions less than
800 square miles in extent, and containing less than ten
reported sawmills, are omitted from this table, because
a small error in the absolute figures for them would
make too much difference in the relative figures.

The table is divided by a double vertical line into two
parts, of five columns each, besides the names of the re-
gions. The first column of figures gives the areas, in
square miles, and the second the estimated percentage
of woodland at the present time. The third gives the
density of population according to the census of 1910
(making some allowance for our three largest cities),
and the fourth the percentage of increase of population
from 1900 to 1910. The fifth column gives the average
daily capacity, in thousand feet board-measure, of the
sawmills enumerated by the Southern Lumberman.

(193)

194 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

The second half of the table shows the ratio between
each region and the whole state, in each of five different
things; and if all the regions were represented in this
table each of these last five columns would add up to
100% Column 6 is for area, 7 for amount of woodland, 8
for population, 9 for number of sawmills, and 10 for total
capacity of the sawmills.

If the state were absolutely homogeneous and the re-
gions were mere arbitrary or political divisions, differing
only in size, the number of inhabitants, sawmills, etc.,
the amount of woodland and of timber cut, in each region
would theoretically be proportional to its area, and the
last five columns would then be exactly alike. But as it
is, the geographical diversity of the regions is faithfully
reflected in the differences between figures on the same
line in different columns in the right half of the table.

In almost very case where the figure in column 8 is
larger than the corresponding one in column 6 that in
column 7 is smaller, and vice versa; because the denser
the population the fewer the trees, other things being
equal. The numerical relations of columns 9 and 10 are
not so simple, but of course in general the number of
mills increases with the population, up to a certain point,
while the total production depends to a considerable ex-
tent on the amount of woodland, and therefore tends to
decrease before the number of mills does; although a
rapid increase of population in a wooded region requires
a large supply of lumber for the construction of new
buildings.*

The reasons for excluding Jefferson County and the
city of Mobile from the computations of population, and
the mills at Prentice, Jackson and Lockhart from some
of the figures for sawmill capacity, have been given un-
der the regional descriptions to which they belong.

*If it were not for the rapid increase of population characteris-
tic of most parts of the United States our per-capita consumption
of lumber would be considerably less, a fact which is not always
taken into consideration in comparing the rate of destruction of
our forests with that in European countries where the population,
although much denser, is almost at a standstill.

APPENDIX D. 195
H = | RELATIVE
rf S 2 £ ||
REGIONS _ileeieea| Rees lo] #/e
ejegsciaa| 2) |e) 3) 8) 2
g2|fslag| fe] 2|ie/3| Z| 2) aE
OEE aly GAb alle sli eesl sews 8
1b. Tennessee valley____-- 4100) 40} 53/11 9.2}! 8.0] 5.2) 9.8) 8.1] 4.7
2a. Plateau region_---__-- 3100) 75| 30/37 6.6|| 6.1] 7.4) 4.8) 2.7] 1.2
Spo ewoar basins = 2s = 3300) 80/ 40/38 |12.9)| 6.5) 8.4) 6.6) 3.6) 2.9
a eomesa valley... 2. <1 <_ 4000) 55}___|_--_|12.1]| 7.8] 7.0] _--|11.7| 8.8
Excluding Jefferson Co._|_-__- BBG Tye VS ask | (ee el eel | P| a
5. Piedmont region_-__--- 5000| 55| 40/1044] 7.3|| 9.8] 8.7/10.5| 8.0} 3.5
6a. Short-leaf pine belt___| 5100} 75) 30/22 |15.0|| 9.9/11.9) 7.6/20.3)18.9
6b. Central long-l. pine hills! 850) 87| ? | ? 40.01 TEGO) F230 L7.6
Ge eratiaw belt-.0.- ===. 1500|°67| ? | ? {13-6|| ca ael|.? | 44) 3.8
fea pelt = = | 4300] 25] 49} * |13.4|| 8.4] 3.5]10.0] 3.7] 3.0
8. Chunnennuggee Ridge__| 2300| 50] 41) * |10.4 45 3.6 a 2
Exclud’g mill at Prentice|_____ 74 || SRS DERE a Sy (ee Se » Ses 21
10. Southern red hills_____ 8000] 60| 32)1246/13.9 15.615. PAO VS-9)41 1
Die wate: ovlsi 2 ce TROOGT ecu iz. ie 2 ieaeal ogee » || eR =
Exclud’g mill at Jackson|_-__-_ OE gee aes ae ht) ee a eS a
12. Lime-sink region____~_- 1350| 60] 50/58 | ___|] 2.6] 2.6) 3.2] 1.8) 2.0
Exclu’g mill at Lockhart|_____ eee Lee rae Perel et hee pee a7) 1.0
13. Southwestern pine hills| 5100) 80) 27|____/37.0||10.0|12.7) 7.2| 9.6/22.1
Excluding Mobile ___---|---_- aH ABSA Pet 2 Od) AOhel she _
erspate ok siar9 62 42/17 /|16.1|/ 100| 100) 100) 100) 100
*Decrease. f

A few of the significant features of this table will now

be briefly indicated.

Region 7 has the smallest proportion of woodland, 1B
next, and 8 third; these being the leading agricultural
No. 3 is the most densely populat-
ed, however, probably on account of having so many rail-

regions of the state.

196 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

roads and manufacturing towns in proportion to area,
but 1B is a close second, with 7 and 12 not far behind.
Next to the two almost uninhabited regions, 14 and 15,
which are not mentioned in the table, 6B, 2B, 13, 2A and
6A have the most forest and the sparsest population, ap-
proximately in the order named.

The number of sawmills per square mile is greatest in
the three divisions of the central pine belt, 6A to 6C, and
least in 7,2A and 2B. In proportion to amount of wood-
land, however, mills are most numerous in 6A, 3 and 1B,
and least in 2A, 2B and 11. In proportion to population
the number of mills is greatest in 6B, 6A and 13 (ex-
cluding Mobile), and least in 7, 12 and 2B. The total ca-
pacity of sawmills in proportion fo area, amount of wood-
land, and population is greatest in 6B, next in 13, third
in 6A, and least in 2A. (Region 9 would doubtless figure
in most of the sentences of this paragraph as having a
well-developed sawmill industry in proportion to popula-
tion if it was large enough for any accurate calculations
to be made for it.)

In general the fundamental cause of the difference in
degree of development of the lumber industry in differ-
ent parts of the state can be traced back pretty directly
to geology and soil, although some other more or less in-
dependent factors influence the problem to some extent,
as already pointed out in some of the regional descrip-
tions.

Although the statistical tables a few pages farther on
(Appendix E) give lumber production only for the whole
state, a rough approximation to the output for each re-
gion may be obtained by multiplying the total quantity
or value by the percentages in the last column of the
foregoing table, for it is reasonable to assume that in a
given area the total production of lumber is proportional
to the aggregate capacity of the sawmills. It would
hardly be worth while to try to estimate the output of
any particular species in each region in this way, though,
for the relative abundance of the species varies too much
in different regions.

APPENDIX E.

Statistics of Alabama Forest Products.

T HE following statistics have been extracted from

various recent publications of the U. S. Census
Bureau and U. S. Forest Service. They are all for the
whole state, no figures for separate counties, much less
for regions, being available. County statistics would be
somewhat misleading, anyway, for a great deal of timber
is sawn, dressed, or still further elaborated in a different
county from that in which it grew.

Dressed and manufactured lumber.—The first two ta-
bles are compiled from the paper on the wood-using in-
dustries of Alabama by Harris and Maxwell, cited in the
bibliography. The figures are not copied directly from
this paper in every case, but have been re-computed so
as to exclude timber brought in from other states and
countries. They show the amount of timber manufac-
tured into something more elaborate than rough lumber,
laths and shingles (therefore excluding not only the
crude product of the small sawmill but also posts, poles,
cross-ties, fuel, etc.), classified first by kinds of timber
and then by products. The values given are those of the
rough lumber as it arrives at the mill where it is dressed
and manufactured, and not those of the finished product,
which may be many times greater. These values repre-
sent mainly the cost of logging, sawing into planks or
bolts, and transportation to the finishing mill. (Some
industries, especially those which use hardwood or make
veneers or excelsior, receive their timber in the form of
round logs, and eliminate the preliminary sawing.)

The average value of each kind of wood can be obtained
if desired by dividing each total value by the correspond-
ing quantity given in the same line. Statistics of wood
industries have not yet been gathered as systematically
and thoroughly as have those of agricultural products or

(197)

1 ey ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

even of minerals, and no doubt some important items
have been omitted. These omissions however will prob-
ably diminish in number in future statistics of this kind.

TABLE 1. WOOD USED IN 1910, CLASSIFIED BY SPECIES.

Thousand
COMMON NAMES TECHNICAL NAMES feet used Value
Long-leaf pine_-_---- Pinus palustris |
Slash pine_--------- Pious. Arapuil § Voc. ete ee 450,000) $5,300,000
Short-leaf pine (in- | __ ,
cluding loblolly) -- Pinus Taeda, echinata--__------ 168,000} 1,940,000
Spruce pine_-------. Pinus glabra (and others?) _---- 630; - 9,500
Cypressase- 222 Taxodium distichum, imbricarium| 1,620 24,300
Cedar ee Juniperus Virginiana --__--_--- 80 1,900
Hickorys 222s Hicoria «~Ssee 4 ee ee 5,280; 111,000
Cotton wood.=__---- Populus deltoides, heterophylla__ 482 9,108
Boecht tte ene Fagus grandifolia_________--___- 315 3,250
@hastnute ale sass Castanea: dentata... ge brie 67 1,050
White oak ho /_ +p: Quereus alba, cicea. goo rare 12,000) 240,000
Post oak2s2224 ‘Quercus’ stellata, etc.2)_ Sue ee’ 860 16,400
Redoak>_.22--—- Quercus falcata, etc. _--------_- 5,600 95,000
Willow oak____----- (Quercus Phellos, ete. _------=--- 125 2,600
Hime 6622.2 seet Wiimus), Amencanayvete- S224 570 8,490
Hackberry --------- \Celtis occidentalis, etc._----_--_- 50 750
Magnolia-_---------. Magnolia grandiflora_____------ 515 5,225
Bayieo et eee Magnolia ‘glauea 222222 Ff 24S22 148 1,643
Poplar2—= + =-- ‘Liriodendron Tulipifera_----__-- 12,000} 185,000
Sweet gum(red gum) Liquidambar Styraciflua______-- 17,500} 200,000
Sycamore_--------- Platanus occidentalis__.___-_-__- i, 70
Pa Wee oe ee Orataeesy S-2 oe ee ee 10 150
Maple--_-----------. BNC ch <j sRegnsys Rebs fa la ek SEAS Ca 25 430
Dogwood__-------+-- Cornus fierida 7-31 2-2 581 aie 450 6,390
Black gum=_=---- = Nyssa sylvatica, biflora____----- 486 5,120
Tupelo gum_-_------ Nyssa: Wuniliora. c= S22 7e 228 7,500 80,000
Persimmon--------- Diospyros. Virginianaa ies 2/5 use | 326 4,900
AgHo 2228 sly S Fraxinus Americana, etc. _-_---- 1,800 38,500
Alothers 3! +2222) ~oo eee sabe Be eee ee 60 900
|
|
Motel <2 SE ish Ed Bee BERLE eis sie sees 690,000|$8,400,000

The fact that lumbermen recognize fewer species of
trees than botanists do, and often apply the same com-
mon name to two or more distinct species, is and always
will be a source of some confusion in such statistics as
this.

APPENDIX E. 199

TABLE 2. SAME CLASSIFIED BY PRODUCTS.

NAME OF PRODUCT . dcr Nem ee
feet used
, No ees | |

Flooring, ceiling, interior finish, etc.___________ 554,388/$6,500,000
Sash, doors, blinds, columns, scrolls, ete._______ 65,183] 850,000
pomes erates, ipaskets,, etcis.2_ = 7 oe es 21,510} 232,000
Cars (including repairs to same)___-____-____- 18,294) 350,000
Vehicles and parts (especially spokes)_-_-____- 7,381| 176,000
CE SAECUSTD setae aes Be eae 9 cae aaa beeen | 5,700 45,450
SS EL 2 i RRR SIRES Le SE eg ee 4,801 67,000
Cigar-boxes (mostly tupelo gum)__-__________ 3,150 29,600
mermciiiaral implements. —- 822. .__-._..__/_2=! 2,450 50,000
Furniture (including kitchen cabinets)_-______ 2,420 33,500
Handles (mostly of hickory, and for axes)_____ 1,275 26,500
Sportine@eand athletic :goods22222 —____-___s»= 1,152 26,800
Shutiieswand spicker-sticks. 2.22 .2- Jobe 2 oe Cs: 11,000
mEaterandebank fixtures. 222 50 2 eiekee 720 20,000
(UDEV OOS VE T', A ka ee ee aa ee ee Se ee 511 7,715
Peco denmware.-retchiuh gs a MEAS oe ee 303 3,460
Malinsmcand: sCaSsketse<se tate ee hy ad be nae 300 4,800
IMEEC MARE ONG et ae er eS kD 125 3,000

ferrin ae ANE Reh ie i 690,000/$8,400,000

Cooperage stock, a very important item in this state,
is not included in the above table, but some statistics of
this industry for 1909 will be found a little farther on.

Rough lumber, etc.—The next table is compiled from
two publications of the U. S. Census Bureau, namely,
Bulletin 77, on lumber and timber products for 1905, a
quarto published in 1907, and “Forest products of the
United States, 1909,” an octavo bulletin without a num-
ber, prepared in co-operation with the U. S. Forest Serv-
ice, and published in 1911. It shows the quantity and
value of rough lumber, laths and shingles, produced in
Alabama in the years named. No indication is given of
how much of the wood, if any, grew outside of the state,
but timber, especially pine, is not usually hauled very far
before it is sawed, and the quantity brought in from
other states to mills near the border is probably just
about balanced by that hauled across the state line a
short distance in the other direction.

200

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

TABLE 3. LUMBER, LATHS AND SHINGLES PRODUCED IN
1905 AND 1909.

|
|

]

1905

TECHNICAL
COMMON NAMES NAMES 7 iP
| Thousand Value Thousand Value
| feet | feet |
| |
Pine ee. Ps UMS pS 1,116,118/$11,320,909)|1,506,863|$20,267,307
Cypress_____--. Taxodium ---| 21,518 421,475 6,6 50 145, "635
Cedarae 2. 2) Juniperus __- 70 2,100 2,869 76, 602
Walnut +. Jumlans, oe 6 240 "721 31,414
Hickory =. '2: Huiconiays— = 2,790 65,200 7,076 194,165
Cottonwood____|Populus —----_- 390 6,000 1,269 19,822
Beeches. 2244 ES pet LS al een Ca | ee eae: 1,125 16,808
Chestnut_—..==2 Castanea ___- 400 4,800 1,909 41,177
Os kUese. _-. Quercuss === 50,588 886, 746 86,557| 1,707,770
inert 28 Wilms asics: 2 |bse4 ie), Seen 1,082 19,346
Poplars=. 223 Liriodendron _| 35,206 627,686 38,324 814,385
Sweet gum_-_-_-_- Liquidambar _ 3 ; 17,092 246,125
Sycamore-_-_-___- Platanuse === 575 6,000 721 31,414
Cherry = 25-2223 PYUNTUS Seer Mies see oe 117 5,850
Maple. ee. AIC Trae | as rs > ee 1,041 User Alirg
Basswood_-_-___- Tilia) deere a 8 81 564 11,241
Tupelo. cum==-= |\Nyvssaees===e— *13,678| *161,268 13,074 166,432
phe) uit oo ws Hraxinus | 222 2,641 61,310 3,387 84,675
All other'species| 2.5 bts. a. eet el oe oe 862 64,810
| | | .
Total. Ala ee Cee es 1,691,001)|$23,938,627

*The two or three kinds of “gum” were not returned separately in
y

1905.

One should not lay. much stress on the excess of the
1909 figures over those for 1905, for the enumeration for
1909 is probably much more accurate, having been made
in connection with the regular decennial census of 1910.
If the truth were known the production for 1905 might
have been the greater, partly because the area of wood-
land is steadily decreasing, and partly on account of the
panic of 1907, which must have affected the lumber busi-
ness perceptibly in 1909.

The increase in average value of lumber shown by the
table, from a little less than $11 a thousand in 1905 to a
little over $14 a thousand in 1909, is significant, however,
and correlated with the decreasing supply.

APPENDIX E. 201

Miscellaneous rough sawmill products.—Bulletin 177,
mentioned above, reports the production in Alabama in
1905 of 73,979,000 pine shingles, worth $127,413, 38,-
114,000 cypress shingles, worth $79,688, and 28,721,000
laths, worth $35,113. According to the 13th Census, Ala-
bama produced in 1909 245,871,000 shingles (kind of
wood not specified), worth $588,475, and 50,979,000
laths, worth $5,959. These two items, laths and shingles,
seem to be also included in the figures given in Table 3.

The following additional products of mills are reported
in the 13th Census publication above mentioned.

Slack cooperage stock

SLAVESwMGDING 22a hak ee oe 14,977,000
Nersmormnea dino (pine) es 2 4,049,000
Scissor hoops daki)ie22=22 2 150,000

(The additional 3,899,000 sets of hoops needed were presumably

iron.)
Staves for tight barrels, 12,978,000 (probably mostly white oak).

Veneers, crate material, etc. (measured in thousand feet b. m.)

Sr eat a A A I eS 1,813
BAITS: i - 2 UU hn SRI DU 20
WOCthOnWU0 dM ee aa eS ee 75
IBGE Chay ARTA eee fae et ee ey 70
FReC Oa ka ia tee 8 he ee EA 6
ihe = AO Pee ee 75
PG) ENN atau 20 a! oe 2 I Se Seo eee es Oe eee L770
Maou Oli rg ee eee Peete Ee A 2 Se ecbey

DSNVC Cope Os UTM tates Meret a a 6,632
SUCTION SY, ase ee oo a, Ral a a A es ge od 2
Maple = Sse ene. UAT Re ee ee 25
MIDE lomo Ae ek Be Pe a th 3,841
LVS” “QeNG Rhett pani emails Sear Sai Reiners mene ns dieses 4

AG bal 2st See. pice be Baten see 9 Ue 14,422 M ft.

Timber-camp products.—These are forest products
which reach the consumer without passing through a
mill of any kind. The statistics for 1905; and 1909 are
given in separate tables.

202 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

TABLE 4. TIMBER-CAMP PRODUCTS, 1905.

NAME QUANTITY VALUE
ors tor galls. -_. ct a eens 11,038,078 ML. ft;; | Sees
ese Stsol tl. 50 Se Ahern eee eee eee On. | “183200 Matt, 7)" as eee
eross-ties:«.._ ute. 65S eee a | 945,404 $242,605
WeNCe-NOStRe ao > op ee So a 30,000 3,000
melccraph{etc.) Pules.- oe 1,300 705

a

TABLE 5. TIMBER-CAMP PRODUCTS, 1909.

NAME QUANTITY VALUE

Logs for domestic manufacture_____- 30,587 M ft. $136,930
Logs for export (mostly hardwood) --. 1,086 M ft. 7,345
Hewed:tamber ts24" 2y os Soe 2,989 M ft. 20,336
(CROSR-LICSE = 2S ee ee ee 262,100 66,909
Mence-posts. Sees Bt este eee. 87,988 3,625
Telegraph and telephone poles_-__-_-~- 1,754 2,183
Pikes, bose, © tei at Be eee 1,745 1,880
Split and shaved shingles______-___-. 302,000 505
Wharcomls-:'ir. has a 522,000 bushels - 20,495
Goopername stock. 2 = ee Eee ee 2,100 cords 8,500
Handlanstocl: 2-24 2-452 oe 5 300 cords 600
JixcelsiGr stock.+0= oo ee 25 cords 250
Wheel Steck 32-25 = a ae 25 cords 100
Tanbarky (0a) = a ee 49 cords 275
Miscellaniedus=-<=)<-2-=> core ee eee 2,197

Total values. 3 soe ee ee $272,775

(The figures for cross-ties, poles and piles appear to be
very incomplete, and mine-timbers are not mentioned
at all.)

Naval stores.—According to Bulletin 126 of the 12th
Census, published in 1902, there were in Alabama in
1900 152 turpentine stills, employing 3,643 men on the
average (more than that in spring and less in winter),
producing in that year 74,078 barrels of turpentine,
worth $1,460,582; 245,394 barrels of rosin, worth $490,-
882; and $82,241 worth of other ‘‘naval stores,” such as
tar and pitch. The exports of these commodities from

APPENDIX E. 203

Mobile in the same year were 153,018 gallons of turpen-
tine, 58,646 barrels of rosin and pitch, and 113 barrels
of tar.

The following table gives some later statistics of the
same industry, taken from “Forest products of the
United States, 1909.”

TABLE 6. THE NAVAL STORES INDUSTRY IN ALABAMA,

1904-1909.
1904 1907 1908 1909
Mersemmne stills... 5+ 144 185 i197, 175
“Crops” worked (reckoned at
10,500 boxes or cups each):
‘ Boxes (old system)_--____- eee se Pees ee ee 1,636
Cups and gutters (Herty
system and modifications)|_________ ret eh as Ss eae ee 309
Turpentine eee (gallons)__| 3,108,000)|3,544,000/3,744,000| 2,840,000
Meeeeene. Samie. 22 8 St DO s.0OD |e ae 1,254,000
Rosin Gecprcts: of 280 disp 2 2s | ,000| 419,000) 447,000 10,000
Walae of psames 22 2 222) een S9301000 | S222 ese e es $1,214,000

For the last decade or two Alabama has ranked third
in the production of naval stores, being far surpassed by
Georgia and Florida. At earlier periods it was sur-
passed also by the Carolinas, but the industry has de-
clined greatly in those states, owing to the exhaustion of
the timber. The only other states producing naval stores
are Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, and the industry is
still in its infancy in the last-named. From 1904 to
1909 Alabama produced just about 10% of all the tur-
pentine and rosin made in the United States.

According to page 169 of the publication last cited,
there were distilled in Alabama in 1909 46,478 cords of
softwood, costing $69,859. This was probably nearly
all long-leaf pine (stumps, knots, etc.), converted by dis-
tillation into charcoal, turpentine, etc. In this compara-
tively new branch of the naval stores industry Alabama
leads all the states, the quantity mentioned being 40.3%
of the total for the United States in the year named.

Practically all of our turpentine and rosin comes from
the long-leaf and slash pines, Pinus palustris and P. El-

204 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

liottii. The production seems to have passed its climax
in Alabama, owing largely to the recent rapid destruc-
tion of the long-leaf, pine forests by farmers, as ex-
plained in the foregoing pages, but at the same time it
is extending farther inland, into regions where the long-
leaf pine is so scattered that its exploitation would not
have been profitable a few years ago. Up to the close
of the last century turpentine stills in Alabama were
chiefly confined to those regions where long-leaf pine
constituted more than 25% of the original forests;
namely 6b, 12, 138, and parts of no. 10. But they are
now in operation as far inland as Tuscaloosa, Chilton,
Coosa and Randolph Counties.*

Conclusion.—In descriptions of the forest resources of
a state or nation it has long been customary to estimate
the amount of standing timber, the rate of consumption,
and the normal annual growth, and from these data to
predict how long the forests will last. The information
at hand is not sufficiently trustworthy to allow us to
make such predictions for Alabama with any degree of
accuracy, and even if it was, it would hardly be worth
while to do so, on account of changes in economic con-
ditions which are continually taking place and upsetting
calculations.

No doubt our forests are being cut at the present time
somewhat faster than they are growing; and yet the
time set for their exhaustion is continually receding into
the future. On page 120 it was pointed out that the end
of our great long-leaf pine forests, predicted as imminent
a generation ago, is not yet in sight. Mr. Hu Max-
well, in his recent article on the timber resources of the
South (referred to in a footnote on page 30), which is

*On Feb. 4, 1913, I saw a few barrels of rosin at the L. & N. de-
pot in Talladega, but did not learn where they originated.

For additional information about this industry the reader is re-
ferred to the following:—Tenth Census U. S. 9:516-518, 529-530,
1884; L. W. Robarts, Pop. Sci. Monthly 30:829-831, April 1887; L.
J. Vance, same 48:469-480, Feb. 1896; Mohr 5 or 6 (pp. 67-72);
and a much more recent paper by Dr. C. H. Herty (the in-
ventor of the cup-and-gutter system) on “The past, present and
future of the naval stores industry,” published in the proceedings
of the Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, vol.
12, 1912, and in the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific So-
ciety for December, 1912 (vol. 28, pp. 117-130).

APPENDIX E. 205

one of the sanest reviews of the existing timber situa-
tion ever published, cites several similar instances for
other parts of the country and for much earlier periods.
As far back as 1749, and again in 1795, he says, alarm
was felt in some of the northern states over the dimin-
ishing supply of timber, and tree-planting was advocat-
ed as aremedy. Another instance of the same kind came
to my notice a few years ago. A writer in the American
Journal of Science about 1830, which was before there
were any railroads, expressed the fear that the forests
would soon be used up for steamboat fuel!

The principal factor which has prevented the _realiza-
tion of these early predictions of a timber famine has
been the discovery and exploitation of vast forests
which were unknown or at least inaccessible (on account
of the absence of railroads) in those days. (The open-
ing up of innumerable coal mines might be regarded as
having operated to diminish the drain on the forests for
fuel, but it is doubtful if it has kept pace with the in-
crease of population and manufactures. If there had
never been any coal mines on this continent the United
States would be still almost entirely an agricultural na-
tion, and the population would be much less than it is.)

We have perhaps nearly reached the end of the possi-
bility of relief through the discovery of new supplies of
timber, for the extent of the forests of the United States
is now pretty well known, and nearly every standing tree
has been seen by one or more lumbermen. Some timber
of course can and will be imported from more thinly set-
tled countries, such as Canada and South America, but
the farther it has to be transported the more it costs the
consumer. The preservation of our forests in the future
will have to depend chiefly on the operation of the well-
known economic law of supply and demand. As wood.
becomes scarcer and less accessible its price will rise and
less of it will be used per capita.

By far the greatest demands on the forests at present
are for fuel and building-material. No statistics of the
amount of wood consumed for fuel seem to be available,
but the rate is not likely to decrease much very soon, be-
cause people living at a distance from railroads and coal
mines cannot very well use coal. The use of wood for

206 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

building-material will diminish from two or three inde-
pendent causes, both or all of which have long been in
operation in Europe. In the first place, as the country
fills up the rate of increase of population will diminish,
more precautions will be taken against fire, and fewer
new houses will be built. Second—and much more im-
portant—brick, stone, concrete, and other lasting materi-
als can and will be substituted for wood at an ever-in-
creasing rate.

Not only in the building trades but in various lines of
manufacture is the substitution of other materials for
wood proceeding rapidly. It has been very noticeable in
the last decade or two in the case of such familiar arti-
cles as fences, dams, bridges, mile-posts, signs, tanks,
railroad cars, bedsteads, barrels, buckets, umbrella rods,
packing boxes (many of which are now made of corru-
gated pasteboard), and others too numerous to mention.

Among the commoner forest products of the South
cross-ties probably come next in quantity to fuel and
building material. Estimating the length of the rail-
roads in this state at 5,000 miles, the number of ties at
3,000 to the mile, their volume at 40 feet b. m. each, and
their average life at five years, the railroads of Alabama
alone would consume about 3,000,000 ties a year, equiva-
lent to about 120,000,000 feet of timber, which is about
one-twelfth as much as the combined output of all the
sawmills in the state. The only present hepe for dimin-
ishing this drain upon the forests seems to lie in treating
the ties with preservatives to make them last longer; for
metal and concrete cross-ties have not yet passed the ex-
perimental stage in America.

But taking all things into consideration there does not
seem to be much need to worry about the timber supply,
.for as it diminishes we will gradually adjust ourselves to
changing conditions. (Even if we cannot get along with
as little wood as do the Eskimos, Tibetans, Chinese and
Arabs, we might in time learn to use it as sparingly as
the Spaniards and Mexicans do.) But it is to our ad-
vantage to make these conditions change as slowly as
possible, and care of the existing forests and economy in
the use of the products derived from them is still a good

policy, as it always has been.

INDEX

This index aims to include all names of trees—both technical and
common names—names of persons, geographical names, and all other
topics not sufficiently indicated by the table of contents, which an
interested reader would be likely to look for. (The illustrations
are indexed too, having been put on numbered pages for that
purpose, instead of on plates as is often done.)

Botanical names are printed in italics. For the benefit of persons
who may know some of the trees better by different technical names
which were current a generation ago, a few synonyms, not men-
tioned in the preceding pages, are included in the index, with cross-

references.

Figures in parentheses indicate pages where the topic

referred to is mentioned indirectly or under a different nanie.

A

(not specified) 198, 200
Floridanum 61, 75, 88, 101, |
POS TOT
leucoderme 50, 56, 61, 69, 106, |
191 |
Negundo 44, 56, 61, 69, 76, 88, |
93, 101, 106, (156), 191
rubrum 39, 44, 50, 56, 61, 66,
69, 76, 80, 83, 88, 93, 96,
HOt. 106. 110) eI 191
saccharinum 44, 61, 69, 76, 83,
88, 93, 101, 106, 191
Saccharum 44, 56, 61, 191
Acknowledgments 15
Aesculus octandra 44, 191
ES Pavia 191
Air, density of 17, 18 .
Agricultural implements 199
Agriculture 30, 35, 53,. 62, 89, 11, |
205 (see also Farmers) |
Alabama River 11, 82, 85, 115, 123 |
|
|

|
Acer
“cc

“ce

“

Alfalfa 90
Alkali in Lime Hills 104
Alluvial soils 35, 58, 67, 123
sa swamps 74, 82, 124
Alpine Mt. (Talladega Co.) 142
Altitude, effects of 18, 20
Amelanchier 44, 50, 56, 69, 75, 87, |
190
American Historical Association 9 |
ES Journal of Science 11,
12, 205

|A. B. &

Animals 18, 186, 187

| Apalachicola River 123

Appalachian valley 58

Arabs 206

Aralia spinosa 106, 110, 117

Arctic regions 18

Arid regions 18

Arkansas 8&4

Artesian wells 86, 104

Ash 34, 44, 46, 56, 61, 62, 70, 71,
76, 77, 84, 88, 91, 96, 101,
103, 106, 107, 125, 126, 198,
200, 201

Asimina triloba 56, 61, 75, 190

Astonishment of natives 70

Athens, scenes near, 130

Athletic goods 199

A. R. R. 144

Attalla, charcoal plant near, 63

Auburn 10

Autauga County 78, 79

= Creek 81
Avant, J. A. 15
Axe-handles 31, 199 (see Handles)

B

“Back to the farm” 89

Bacteria 17, 186

Bald Knob (Elmore Co.) 11

Baldwin County 113, 115, 119, 120,
126, 128, 166-169, 172, 176,
189

Ball, T. H., book by, 10, 97, 103

(207)

208

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Bangor limestone 40, 41, 182

Bank fixtures 199

Barbour County 99

Bark horse-collars 71

Barker, A. L., 15, 163

Barnard, F. A. P. 10

Barrels 180, 201, 206

Barrens of Tennessee valley 37-40,
130

Bartram, Wm., book by, 10, 81, 84,
aS

Bashi formation 97

Basin region 52-57, 140, 188, 195

Baskets 31, 45, 63, 77, 91, 94, 102,
LOS sel Ove Zowelon

Basswood 44, 46, 50, 56, 62, 200 |
| Blue Ridge 11, 13, 58, 64-67, 76, 144

(see Lin)

Batodendron arboreum 117, 191

Bay, 34, 50, 51, 55, 61, 65, 66, 69,
TSO) Soaks as OG) LOI,
106, 109, 110, 117, 125, 150,
198 (see also Red bay)

Bay Minette 114, 115, 166

Bayou Ja Batre 178

Bays 109, 110, 189

Bedsteads 206

Beech 39, 43, 46, 49, 50, 52, 55, 60,
62,65, 69,71, 14, 15,) 17, "09,
82, 84, 87, 91, 93, 96, 99, 100,
103, 105, 110, 117, 134, 1386,
198, 200, 201

Bell’s Landing formation 97

Bermuda
of 104, 188

Berney, S., book by, 10, 12

Bessemer 56

Betula lenta 50, 65, 66, 189

H nigra 39, 43, 50, 55, 60, 69, |
1D, S20U8t, 930-96, 100),
105, 110; 117, 189

Bibb County 13, 78, 79

Bibliography 9-15, 28

Big Creek (Tuscaloosa Co.) 150

Big springs 42, 53, 59, 85, 98-99,
104, 108

Birch 39, 43, 46, 50, 55. 60, 65, 66,
69% 75, 82, 87, 93;496, 100,
105. OS Cy,

Birmingham 10, 56, 61, 62

Black belt 24, 26, 36, 84-92,
154-157, 188, 190, 195

Black Bluff formation 95

Black cypress 88 (see Cypress)

“« gum 34, 39, 44, 50, 56, 61, 66,

70, 76, 77, 80, 83, 88, 93, 96,
101, LOGF TOS! AO) 1175, 125;
142, 150, 172, 198

(Conecuh Co.), climate |

Black haw 44, 50, 56, 61, 70, 76,
88, 106
locust 44, (46), 50, 66, 69
oak 50, 55, 60, 65, 69, 75, 80,
82, 100
pine 74, 79, 109, 116
walnut 48, 55, 60, 74, 105
(see Juglans, and Walnut)
Black-jack oak 39, 48, 50, 55, 60,
65, 69, 75, 80, 82, 87, 93,
96, 101, 105, 110, 117, 144

| Blinds 62, 71, 77, 91, 102, 122, 199

Blount County 12, 37, 42, 138

Blue Marl region 91-94

Blue Pond (Covington Co.) 164
144

Blue Spring (Barbour Co.) 99

Bluffs 41, 48, 49, 53-55, 61, “69, 70,
74-76, 86, 92, 93, 99, 100,
105, 106, 110, 115-117, 140,
189-191

Boats 46, 199

|Bodka Creek (Sumter Co.) 156

Bogue Loosa Creek (Choctaw Co.)

158

Boll-weevil 90

Bon Secour Bay (Baldwin Co.)
119

Botanists 33, 189, 198

| Box elder 61, 156 (see Acer Ne-
gundo)

Boxes 199, 206

| Bridgeport, industries at, 47

| Bridges 206

srooklyn, N. Y.

118

118, |

191
lycioides 44, 56, 61, 76,
88; 101. 110.5191
| Butler County 98, 99, 102, 103, 111
| Butter-trays 46

| Brookwood, long-leaf pine near,
78, 180
Brown’s Valley 37, 40-42, 58
| Brumby, R. T., writings of, 10
| Buckets 206
| Buckeye 44
Buggies 31
Buhrstone formation 97, 98, 104,
158
| Bullock County 91
| Bumelia lanuginosa 88, 101, 110,
|

“ec

C

| Cabinets 198
| Cahaba coal field 52

€
my

53

INDEX.

Cahaba valley 58

Calcareous and non-calcareous
soils 88, 41, 60, 61, 86-88,
93, 104-106, 110, 1138, 190,
191

Calcium (see Lime)

Caldwell, G. W. 10, 107

Calhoun County 13, 64

Canada, forests of, 30, 205

Canals for logging 121

Cane-brake region 84

Capacity of sawmills
mills)

Carboniferous strata 38, 40, 47, 58,
64

(see Saw-

Carpinus 39, 48, 50, 55, 60, 69, 74,
79, 82, 87, 93, 96, 100, 105,
110, 117, 189

Cars (railroad) 63, 199, 206

Castanea dentata 43, 50, 55, 60, 65,

69, 75, 79, 82, 100, 190,
198, 200

us pumila 50, 65, 75, 82, 100,
190

Cataipa 61, 70, 76, 83, 88, 93, 101,
106, 110, 191
Catoma Creek (Montgomery Co.)

Cattle 30, 31, 90, 128 (see also un-
der regional descriptions):

Cattle-ticks (see Ticks)

Caves 42, 59, 85, 104, 108

Cedar 7, 39, 43-46, 49, 55, 60, 68, 65,
68, 82, 87, 91, 93, 99, 100,
LOZ Oh, MOT al O edt De sla
128, 132, 144, 154, 180, 198, |
200

Cedar Mountain (Clay Co.) 144

Ceiling 199

Celtis 44, 55, 61, 75, 82, 87, 96,
106, 156, 190, 198

Cement 90

Census figures or reports (see Uni- |
ted States)

Central pine belt, 21,
153, 195, 196

Cercis 44, 50, 56, 61, 69, 75, 88, 93,
101, 106, 110, 191

Chairs, chair stock 638, 77, 123, 125,
199

Chalk bluffs 86, 88

Chainaecyparis 116, 118, 189

Chambers County 67, 68, 70

Chandler Mountain 47, 138

Chapman, sawmill at 103

Charcoal 46, 51, 52, 57, 63, 66, 71,
77, 180, 202, 203

72-84, 150- |

209
Cheaha Mountain 64
Chemical analyses of rocks and
soils 54, 85
Cherry, sa AO;

wild, 44, 46, 56, 69,
200

Chert hills or ridges 37, 41, 43, 59,
60, 142, 189

Cherty soils 41, 58, 73

Chestnut 48, AG, 5OMMG2, 00,160, 62,
65; 169) Te 75;: a, 09282)
100, 198, 200

Chestnut Creek (Chilton Co.) 146

Chestnut oak 43, 50, 52, 55, 60, 65,
66, 69, 75, 79, 132, 144, 150,

198.

Chestnuts 52, 71

| Childersburg, charcoal ovens at,
63, 180

| Chilton County 58, 79, 146, 148, 204

Chimney rock 104, 114, 158, (162)
178

Chinese 206

|Chinquapin 50, 65, 75, 82, 100

|Chittamwood 44

|'Choctaw County 98, 99, 104, 107,

| 158, 160

|Choctawhatchee River 115

|Chunnennuggee Ridge 91, 97,

195

| Cigar-boxes 125, 199

| Cisterns 86

| Citronelle, climate of 116, 188

| Cladrastis 56, 191

| Claiborne formation 97, 104

188,

|Clarke County 10, 98, 99, 104, 114,
162

|Clay, clayey soils 24, 41, 53, 58,

| Gi, 12.73, CSarsilee sp, OF,

| 108, 110, 113, 116
CI ay County 11, 64, 65, 70, 144
| Clayton, Clayton formation 97
|Cleared land, clearings, extent of,
26, 28, 29, (195) (see also
under regional descrip-
tions )
Cliff pine 49, 54, 55, 140 (see Pinus
Virginiana)
Cliffs 58, 65, 138, 189
| Cliftonia 110, (111), 117, 128, 176,
| 191
|Climate 17, 23, 187, 188
Climatic factors 19
|Coal Measures 12, 47, 48, 53, 54,
78, 132, 136
mining 51, 56, 57, 205
recion 13; 210 Sie 42%
136-141, 188, 195

“cc

“ec

47-59,

210

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Coast strip 126-128, 174-177
Coastal plain 11, 14, 35, 36, 41, 42,
48, 54, 67, 72-128, 189-191
Coden, scene near, 174
Coffey, G. N., on soils 20
Colbert County 387, 41, 42
Columns 46, 71, 77, 199
Common names of trees 28, 189,
198, 200

Competition between plants 18
Conecuh County 10, 103, 104

4 River 115
Conifers 51
Conservationists 29
Cooperage stock 32, 45, 57, 63, 77,

Cribbs’s Creek (Tuscaloosa Co.)
150

Cross-ties 40, 45, 47, 51, 52, 57, 63,
66, 70, TT, 91, 94, 97, 102,
192° 122. 123, 197). 20277206

Crystalline rocks 67

Cuba, Cuban pine 102

Cucumber tree 34, 46, 50, 55, 61,
65, 69, 75, 80, 99, 101, 106,
110, 136

Cumberland Plateau 47

Cypress 33, 48, 68, 71, 74, T7, 82,
84, 87, 91, 99, 100;.102;
108, 105; 107, LOO. Ads eanlas
196, 121, 122,125, 1265505

91, 199, 201, 202
Coosa coal field 13, 52, 538
“ County 13, 70, 148, 204 |
River 58, 59, 61, 67, 69, 71, |
148
valley region 12, 138, 39, 40,
42, 56, 58-64, 142-145,
188, 195.
Cordova, climate of, 54, 188
Cornus florida 44, 50, 56, 61, 66,
69, 76, 80, 83, 93, 101, 106,
110,117, (146, 152), 191, 198
Cotinus 44, 191
Cotton 89
“ baskets 31, 91, 94, 1038
boll weevil 90
gins 31
production 13, 89
Cottonwood 43, 60, 62, 74, 82, 87,
91, 93, 100; 105, 125, 126
198, 200, 201
County-seats on
belt 88
Covington County 109, 112, 121,
164, 170, 182
Crab-apple 50, 61
Crataegus (not specified) 191, 198
s aestivalis (109), 110,
(Ar AOD:
Crus-galli 88, 190
Michaurii 101, 190
spathulata 56, 61,
75, 88, 101, 190
viridis 44, 61, 69, 75, 88

|
‘“c

“ce
ac

“

?

69

,

’

96, 117, 190
Crates 32, 45, 63, 102, 107, 122;
199, 201

Crawfish 114

Crenshaw County 98

Cretaceous formations 14, 35, 72,
81, 84, 92

edges of black)

164, 198, 200, 201

black 33
pond 383, 109, 11, 116, 164
red 33
river (48), 109, 116
white 33
75, 80, 83, 93, 106, 110, 117,

| Cyrilla
| 128, 176, 191
|

| D

Dadeville, scene near, 148

| Dallas County 11, 15, 85, 87

|Dams 148, 206

| Daphne, climate of, 116, 188

| Decatur 42, 46, 47, 134, 188

“DeKalb County 11, 1386, 138

'Delta of Mobile River 123

| Deserts 187

|DeSoto Falls 136, 138

Dictionaries 83

| Diospyros 44, 56, 61, 66, 70, 76, 80,
3, 88, 938, 96, 101, 106, 110,

117, 191, 198

Dissemination of seeds 18, (186)

| Distillation of pine wood 122, 203

Dixie P. O., scene near, 164

Dog River (Mobile Co.) 119

Dogwood 44, 50, 56, 61, 66, 69, 76,

80, 83, 88, 93, 101, 102, 106,

110, 117, 146, 152, 198

| Doors 62, 71, 77, 91, 102, 122, 199

/Dothan 111

Dressed lumber 196

| Duneanville, escarpment near,

/Dunes 126-128, 176, 189

78

10)

Earle, F. S., work of, 10, 67

, Economie aspects of forests 29-34
| Editorial interference 13, 83

INDEX.

211

Dlm 34, 39, 43, 44, 46, 55, 61, 62,
69; 75, 77, 82, 87, 93, 96,
101, 106, 125, 132, 198, 200,
201

slippery 44, 55, 61, 87

Elmore County 11, 69, 82

Pmelle (Sumter Co.), scene near,
154

Enemies of trees, 18, 25

Environmental factors 17, 185-187

Eocene formations 95, 97, 104

Epes, scene near, 154

Erosion 53, 74, 114, 115

Errata 7

Escarpments 41, 78, 81, 91, 97

Eskimos 206

Estuarine swamps (123-126), 172

Etowah County 59

Eufaula, climate of, 92, 188

Europe, 194, 206

Eutaw 81, 88

* belt 81-84, 188, 195
“ formation 81

Evaporation 19, 49

Evergreen, industries of, 107

Fyvergreen oak 160 (see Quercus
laurifolia)

Evergreens for decorative pur-
poses 94, 103, 107
Eyergreens, proportion of in for-

ests, 15, 28, 109, 148, 154,
187, 191 (see also under re-
gional descriptions)
Exaggerated claims (33, 46), 52,
77 ;
Excelsior 122, 197, 199, 202
Inxperiments (ecological) 18

r

Fagus 39, 43, 50, 55, 60, 65, 69, 75,
79, 82, 87, 93, 96, 100, 105,
110; 117, 134, 136; 190, 198,
200.

Falkville, sawmill at, 46

Fall-line 35, 67, 68, 78

Farmers 29, 31, 32, 51, 56, 66, 70,
SOPA08 Silt 113. 120) 170;
204

Fences, fence-posts and rails 31,
128, 202, 206

Ferruginous concretions 73

WE sandstone 73, 78, 114,
152 :
Fertilization, fertilizers 48, 89, 108
Fippin, HE. O., on soils 20 -

Wire, effects of, 17, 25-27, 30, 79,
83, 144, 186, 187, 206 (see
also under regional descrip-
tions)

Fish River (Baldwin Co.) 119

Fishermen 128

Flatwoods 39, 60, 61, 130, 142

Flint Creek (Morgan Co.) 134

Flomaton, climate of, 116, 188

Hlooring 62, 122, 199

Florala 111

Florence 38, 42, 47, 188

Florida 10, 80, 83, 103, 108, 109,
113, 115, 116, 118, 126, 128,
176, 203

Fluctuation of water 28, 42, 48,
53, 59, 68, 99, 115, 124, 186

Foot-hills 67 .

Foreign trade 118, (123, 202-203,
205)

Forest products

under

tions)
types 17, 19, 20, 25 (see
also under regional descrip-
tions)

Fort Deposit 88, 92, 188

Fort Mitchell 10

Fort Payne 138

Foster, J. H. 11

Franklin, J. 15

Franklin County 73

31-34 (see also
regional descrip-

ad

Frankville, turpentine still near,
178
Fracinus Americana 44, 56, 61, 70,
76, 88, 96, 101, 106,
191, 198 ©
s Caroliniana 76, 101, 191
- quadrangulata 56, 191
ae sp. 125, 200

Freight cars 63

Frost 19, 24, 49

rye, A. E., geography by, 22

Wuel 31, 52, 112, 122, 118, 197, 205,
206

Fungi 17, 186

Furniture 31, 32, 46, 52, 63, 71,
122, 199

any

G

Gadsden, climate of, 59, 188
Game laws 31

Gannett, H., writings of, 24
reiger, scene near, 156
Geographical classification 17
Geology 14, 18, 21, 35, 186, 187, 196

212

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA,

Geomorphologists 48
Geomys Tuza 115
Georgia 10, 11, 47, 72, 78, 81, 89-
Si Oe LOZ) LOS mes is:
118, 2038
Gibson, A. M. 12
Gins 31
Gleditschia 44, 75, 191
Gneiss 67, 146
Goodwater, climate of, 68, 188
Gordonia 117, 118, 191
Gorges 38, 39, 48, 138
Gosse, P. H., book by, 11, 84
Grand Bay, scenes near, 170
Granite 67
Grape vines 156
Grass 26
Grasselli, scene near, 144
Gravitation, effects of, 18
Grazing 26, 30
Great Lakes 38
Greene County 81
Greensboro 88
Ground-water 14, 19, 20, 28-29, 38,
42, 59, 86, 99, 116
Grove Hill 10
Growing season, length of, 19, 24,
188° (see also under re-
gional descriptions)
Gulf of Mexico 128, 124, 126
Gum (not specified) 200
black (see Nyssa biflora, N.
sylvatica)
red 84, 46, 198 (see next)
sweet (see Liquidambar)
tupelo (see Nyssa uniflora)
Guntersville 41

H

Hackberry 44, 46, 55, 61, 75, 82,
87, 91, 96, 106, 156, 198

Hale, C. S., paper by, 11, 84

Hale County 13, 78, 152

Halesia Carolina 44, 50, 70, 191

FS diptera 70, 88, 101, 106,
110, 117, 191

Hamamelis 160

Hamilton, climate of, 188

Hammock defined 83

Hammock vegetation, hammocks
19-20, 83, 92, 99-101, 105,
109, 110, 116, 117, 127, 189-
191

Handles 31, 32, 46, 52, 63, 71, 91,
102, 199, 202

1

Harbison, T. G., paper by, 11, 47
Hardwoods 19, 45, 60, 86, 108, 112,
128, 148, 154-157, 180, 197,
202
Harris, J. T., work of, 11, 32-34,
45, -62, 197°
Hartford, 111
Hartselle, scene near, 134
o sandstone 40, 41, 48, 134
Hatchetighbee anticline 104
formation 97
Haw, black, 44, 50, 56, 61,
88, 106
May, 109-111, 117
(red) 44, 56, 61, 69,
965 ON kites
Heading 201
Heat, effects of, 17
Hemlock 49, 136
Henry County 103
Herty, C. H. 68, 122, 178, 203, 204.
Hickory 26, 34, 39, 40, 48, 46, 49,
52, 5d, 60, 62, 6b.G8;) 40;
71, 74, 77, 79, 82, 84, 87,
91, 94, 96, 100, 1038, 105,
107, 110, 116, 198-201
bitternut 43
pignut 49, 55, 60, 65, 68,
74, 79, 100, 116, 127
scaly-bark 39, 48, 49, 74,
87, 96, 132
swamp (74), 100, 105, 116
116
Hickory nuts 46, 52, 71, 103
Hicoria (not specified) 198, 200
ss alba 39, 48, 49, 55, 60, 65,
68, 74, 79, 82, 87, 96, 100,
105, 110, 116, 189
as aquatica 74, 82, 87, 100,
105, 116, 189
a glabra 48, 49, 55, 60, 65,
68, 74, 79, 100, 116, 127,

RO WetG3

75, 88,

189
f nricrocarpa 60, 189
ee minima 43

te ovata 39, 48, 49, 60, 74,
87, 96, 132, 189
Highland Rim 37
Hill country of Alabama 35-71
Hodges, R. S., analysis by, (54)

“_“ photographs saspae
136, 164, 166,
168, 17450 Ags;
182

Hog plum 44
Hogs 30, 31
Hollins, scene near, 144

INDEX. 213

Holly 44, 50, 51, 56, 61, 66, 69, 75, Ke

80, 83, 88, 93, 96, 101, 106, :

107, 110, 117 |Kaul Lumber. Co. 80
Honey 71, 77, 108, 128 Kentucky 47
Honey locust 44, 75 | Keokuk chert 38
Hoops 201 | Killebrew, J. B. 29
Horse-collars 71 | Kitchen cabinets 198
Houston County 103
Hubs 46
Humid regions 18 : L
Humidity 18
Humus 26, 43, 83, 186 Lafayette formation (35), 73, 78,
Huntsville 42, 47 85-88, 92, 95, 98, 104, 114
Hurricane sta. 172 | Langdon, D. W., Jr. 14

_Laths 62, 122, 197, 199-201
I | Latitude, influence of, 18, 186, 187

| Lauderdale chert 88, 40

Illex decidua 56, 75, 191 ‘ County 37. 38, 40-42
. eee oe)» 110, (111), Lawrence County 37 “41 "42
iltyGeak 2 ath

= |Lee County iS 740)
Epa = 2 Se” ae | Leguminous plants, absence of, 127
Bee See on Vea Ue? | baght,* effects of, 17-19
- (107), 110, 117, 164, 191

| Lightning 25
* vomitoria 110, 117, 191 ry g
Illinois 89 Lightwood 103

; , | Lime, limestone 36, 37, 39, 41-48,
Illustrations 129-183 | 48, 58, 54, 58, 60, 61, 67, 73,
78, 84, 85, 88, 95, 98, 100,
104-106, 108-110, 114, 115,

note on, 34
Insects 17, 25 |
Interior finish 62, 199

Feat Ho 162, 178, 189, 191
eae SA Ese Lime hills 103-107, 111, 162, 178,
ron furnaces 51, 57, 188, 195

“ore 53 . Payee 2 =
Ironwood 39, 43, 50, 55, 60, 69, 74, Lime-sink region 108-113, 115, 116,

he eel as 118, 164, 195
pee Te, 100, 205, Th) 1 | ame-sinks 85, 108,’ 1164
ris |Limestone County 11, 37, 38, 41,
| 130, 134
J | Limonite 78
Jack-pine plains of Michigan 127 Lin 44, 46, 50, 56, 61, 62, 66, 69,

Jackson 107, 162, 194, 195 | 76, 83, 88, 93, 101, 106,
3 County 41, 46, 51, 132, 180} 132, (200)
ss Lumber Co. 182 | Liriodendron 39, 44, 50, 55, 61, 65,
Jasper, scene near, 140 69; 75, 80, 83; 87; 93; 96,
Jefferson County 54, 56, 61, 142, 101, 106, 110, 117, 190, 198,
144, 189, 194, 195 200 (see also Poplar)
John, S. W., 15 _Liquidambar 389, 44, 50, 56, 61, 66,
Johnson, L. C., writings of, 14,| 69, 75, 80, 83, 87, 93, 96,
113, 119 LOE SOG AIO} 11, 125 127,
Johnson grass 89 134, 142, 190, 198, 200 (see
Jones’s Valley 13, 58, 142, 144 | also Sweet gum)
Juglans nigra 43, 55, 60, 74, 189,| Lisman, scene near, 160
200 | Little Mountains of Tennessee
Juniper 116, 118, 121, 122 valley 37, 41, 48
Juniperus 7, 39, 48, 49, 55, 60, 65, Little River (Lookout Mt.) 136,
68, 82, 87, 93, 100, 105, 110, | 138
127, 182, 144, 154, 189, 198,; Live oak 110, 111, 127, 128, 174,
200. (Several additional 176
references under Cedar) | Livingston 88

214

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Loblolly pine 198 (see Pinus

Taeda)

Lockhart 113, 121, 170, 182, 194,
195

Locks in navigable rivers 57, 59,
90, 148 -

Locomotives, wood-burning, 112,
(122), 183

Locust, black 44, (46), 50, 66, 69
honey 44, 75

Locust pins 46

Log-carts 121

Log-trains 182

Logs 81, 103, 121, 182, 197, 202.

Long-leaf pine 19, 26, 27, 33, 45, 46,
49, 152,54, 55, 57, 59, 60; 62,

G5 1664) 68) sOs Tilsen,

77, 79, 80, 82, 84, 87,

, 98, 94, 96, 97, 99; 100,

TOS eelOnn LOO stale

116, (118, 119), 120-

, 126, 140, 142, 144, 146,

152, 160,

171, 178, 182, 198, 208, 204

Long-leaf pine hills 78-81, 115-115,
ils p>, als)

Lookout Mountain 11, 47,

Louisiana 113, 203

Lowndes County 85, 87, 91

Lumber 32, 40, 52, 57, 62, 66, 70,
77, 80, 94, 97, 102, 108, 107,
112, 122, 123, 166, 194, 196,
197, 199

Lumbermen 29, 30, 33, 51, 113, 205

Lyell, Sir Charles, 11, 25, 81, 84,
97, 103

63,

36, 138

M

Macon County, evergreens in, 88

Madison, climate of, 38, 42, 188
. County 37, 41, 46, 132,

191

Magnesia 95

Magnetism, terrestrial, 18

Magnolia 83, 87, 93, 96, 101, 103,

LODO, ALO; ALG 127, 198;

201
Magnolia (not specified) 34, 45
“t acuminata 55, 75, 101,
106, 190

oe glauca 50, 55, 61, 65, 69,
75, 80, 83, 87, 93, 96,
101, 106, 110, 117, 125,
150, 190, 198

(164), 166-

Magnolia grandiflora 88, 87, 93, 96,

101, ©(@03), 205)55 406;
(10%), P1110; eae
190, 198, (201)

ss macrophylla 50, 55, 61,
65, 69, 75, 80, 101, 106,
136, 190

pyranidata 75, 101, 110,
190

“ tripctala 50. (60) wane,
190 .

Maine, forests of, 30
Malaria 15, 90, (106)
Mallet, J. W., work of, 14
Malus angustifolia 50, 61, 190
Manchester, sawmill at, 57
Mantels 102
Manufacturing 51, 62, 89
Maple (not specified) 384, 46, 50,
62, 66, 198, 200
red 39, 44, 50, 56, 61, 66, 69,
76, 80, 83, 88, 98, 96, 101,
106), ATO ie ies
silver 44, 61, 76, 88, 93, 101,
106
sugar 44, 50, 56, 61, 69, 75,
88, 101, 106, 110
Marengo County 94
Marion 88
“County 48 _
Marshall County 51
Marshes 124, 126-128
Maryland 72
Maxwell, H. 11, 30, 32-34, 45, 62,
197, 204
May haw 109-111, 117
McCalla, scene near, 142
McCalley, H. 12, 13, 37, 38, 47, 48,
53, 54, 58, 72
McGuire, W. W., paper by, 12, 84
Medicine 46, 63
Metamorphic region 11
sg rocks 64, 67
Mexicans 206. Mexico 35
Michigan 120, 127
Midway formation 97-99
Mile-posts 206
Millry, scene near, 178
Mine props or timbers 51, 52, 57,
63
Mineral region 385-71
Minerals 35
Miners 56
Mining 51, 57, 62
Minnesota, forests of, 30
Mississippi 24, 36, 72, 81, 84, 90,
91, 95, 98, 103, 118, 126, 203

INDEX.

Missouri 89

Mobile 10, 14, 116, 118, 123-125,
188, 194-196, 203

Bay 115, 119; 123, 126

County 14, 113, 118, 120,
125, 126, 170, 174, 178

delta 123-126, 172, 189

River 124

Neve OR. WR: 18; 79

Mock orange 56 (see Prunus Car-

oliniana)

Mohr, Charles, 10, 12, 13, 22, 25,
31, 38, 47, 48, 53, 54, 58.
64, 72; 84, 85; 97, 113, 119,
120, 123, 126, 136, 204
Mohrodendron (see Halesia)
Moisture, effects of, 17, 19
Moles 186
Monroe County 98
Montgomery 10, 14, 82, 84, 88, 188
' Advertiser 90
es County 91
Moon, influence on vegetation 18
Morgan County 37, 41, 134 |
Morus rubra 44, 55, 61, 69, 75, 83.

Si, 1.95.7 101, 1065110; «190
Moss 105
Mouldings 62, 102
Mountain limestone 40
‘s oak G5 (see Quercus
Prinus)
Mountains of North Ala. 18, 35,
44, 64, 132, 189
(so-called) in coastal
, Dilain 36, 78, 81, 98,
* 99, 102, 158
Mud 85, 114, 115
Mulberry 44, 55, 61, 69, 75, 83, 87,
93, 101, 105, 106, 110
Murphree’s Valley 58
Mussel Shoals 42
Myrica cerifera 93, 110, 117, 128

“ce

Myrtle 93, 110, 117, 128
N

Naheola formation 97

Names of trees 28, 189, 207

Nanafalia formation 97, 99

National Magazine 182

Natural bridges 42. 53, 136

INayal -stores 57,63; 70, 71,. 80;
102, 2. 12 ADS. - 202-204
(see also Turpentine)

Navigable streams 42, 59; 68, 84,
91, 102

Negro population 89, 111, 178

215

Negundo 156 (see Acer Negundo)
New Decatur, scene near, 134
New Hampshire 118
New York 35
Newspapers 31, 47, (90)
Nitrogen in soil 25, 27, 30, 36, 95
Non-alluvial swamps 75, 76, 83,
88, 93, 100, 101, 106, 116,
117, 124, 150, 189-191

North Carolina 10, 64, 78, 99, 118,
127, 203

Northport, scene near, 150

Nuts (see Chestnut, Hickory, Wal-

nut)

Nyssa biflora 50, 56, 61, 76, 80,
83, 88, 93, 101, 106, 110,
AG, 125, 150), 172-191, 198

sylvatica 39, 44, 50, 56, G1,
66, 70, 76, 80, 88, 96,
101, 106, 142, 191

uniflora 44, 61, 76, 83, 88,
LOLS WO Pad TS M2 aot.
198, 200

O

Oak (not specified) 26, 27, 33, 38,
46, 49, 54, 59, 74, 76, 80, 92,
OF, 99 102 105s) Tie:
118, 125, 184, 154, 158, 191,
200, 202

black 50, 55, 60, 65, 69, 75, 80,
82, 100

black-jack 39, 48, 50, 55, 60, 65,
69, 75, 80, 82, 87, 93, 96,
LOE, LOS LOM AAs:

chestnut 43, 50, 52, 55, 60, 65,
66, 69, 75, 79, 132, 144, 150

live, 1403 “io E87, Ot27., $828.
174, 176

mountain
Prinus)

post 33, 39, 40, 43, 50, 52, 55,
Si GOI16301654 666: 69, 70,
75, 17, 79, 82, 86, 87, 91, 93,
SGOT, LOO} 105s ML 7 138,
158, 198

red (see Quercus falcata)

Spanish 39, 438, 50, 55, G0, 65,
69, 75, 82; 96, 101

swamp chestnut 33, 39, 43, 60,
69, 75, 82, 87, 93, 96, 100,
105.) AAG

swamp post 82, 87 (see Quer-
cus lyrata)

turkey 80, 82, 93, 101,
TIOO AAT, ABD

65 (see Quercus

105,

216

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Oak, upland willow 80 (see Quer-
cus cinerea)
water 34; 43, 50, 51, 55, 60,
69, 75, 80, 82, 87, 93, 96,
101, MOG; SATO, 1477,
white (see Quercus alba)
Willow 34, 39, 43, 55, 60, 69,
75, 82, 87, 93, 96, 101, 106,
117, 198
Oakman, scene near, 140
Oligocene formations 104
Oneonta, scene near, 138
Opelika, climate of, 68, 188
Optinists 89
Orange Beach, scenes near, 176
Organic matter in soils 25, 27, 85
Osmanthus 93, 101, 106, 110, 117,
160, 191
Ostrya 39, 438, 50, 55, 60,.69, 74,
87, 100, 105, 110, 117, 189
Owen, Thos. M. 9, 13, 14
Oxydendron 44, 50, 56, 61, 66, 70,
76, 80, 83, 93, 96, 101, 106,
iat w1 eo
Oysters 126

P

Packing boxes 206

Paleozoic strata 11, 12, 21, 35, 40,
41, (58), 68

Palmetto 128

Panola, scene near,

Pasturage 31, (128)

Paving blocks 122

Pawpaw 56, 61, 75

Pea River 115

Pearson, scenes near,

Beat (aise, 123

Pebbles 73

Pencil wood, pencils, 45, 46, 63,
LOZ 10K, tz e2s

Pennsylvania 52, 58, 64, 67

Perdido Bay 119, 176
River 119

Perry County 78

Persea Borbonia 101, 190

“pubescens 65, 69, 75, 80,
STALOIO ATT: 125; 1:90

Persimmon 44, 56, 61, 66, 70, 76,
80, 83, 88, 93, 96, 101, 103,
106, 110, 117, 198

Peters, T. M. 12

Pettus, R. E. 15

Phillips, J. He 22

Phosphoric acid or phosphorus, in
soil 36, 48, 81, 85

154

152

Picker-sticks 198

Piedmont region 13, 64, 67-71, 146-
149, 188, 195

Pignut hickory 49, 55, 60, 65, 68,
74, 79, 100, 116, 127

Pike County 99, 160

Piles 122, 202

Pine (not specified) 20, 25, 27,
40, 49, 54, 68, 68, 70, 74,
76, 77, 92, 94, 99, 102, 108,
107, 111), 125,126) f4 8S aon

199-201

black 74, 79, 109, 116

cliff 49, 54, 55, 140 (see
Pinus Virginiana) —

Cuban 102

loblolly 198 . (see Pinus
Taeda)

long-leaf (see Pinus palus-
tris )

short-leaf (see Pinus echin-
ata and P. Taeda)
slash./33, 100, 102.5109 51h,
116,121, 122, 127) 164166;
176, 198, 203
spruce 33, 49, 82, 83, 87, 93,
100, 105, 107, 109, 116, 186,
198
swamp 49
white 33, 46, 57, 62, 71,_77,
87, 91, 94
(not specified) 200
clausa 7, 127, 128, 189
“ Cubensis 102
“ echinata 39, 438, 49, 55, 60,
65, 68, 74, 79, 82, 87, 93,
96, 100, 105, 109, 116, 138,
148, 150, 158, 189, 198
(see also Short-leaf pine)

“ Elliottii 100, 102, 109, 116,
121, 127%; . 1645, d66;aaiie:
189, 198, 203-204

“glabra 82-84, 87, 91, 93, 100,
103, 105,) 109; 1116) Aso)
198

inops (see P. Virginiana)

mitis (see P. echinata)

“ ~ palustris 49, 55, 60, 65, 68,
74, 79, 82, 87, 98, 96, 100,
105, 109, 116, 140, (442);
144, (146), 148, 152, 166,
(168, 170, 178, 182), 189,
198, 203. (Aditional ref-
erences under Long-leaf
pine)

serotina
189

Pinus
“ec

14, 79; 109, 116)

INDEX.

Pinus Taeda 39, 48, 46, 49, 55, 60,
65, 68, 74, 76, 79, 82, 87, 93,
96; 100, 105, 109, 116, 127,
130; 142.160, 178, 189,
198 (see also Short-leaf
pine)

ie Virginiana 48, 46, 49,

57, 60, 65, 79, 140, 144,
189

Pioneer vegetation 36

Pitch 203

Planera 44, 75, 82,
106, 110, 190

87, 93, 101,

Platanus 39, 44, 50, 56, 61, 69, 75, |

83, 87, 93, 96, 101, 106, 110,
117, 156, 190, 198, 200
region 12, 37, 41, 47-54,
36-189, 189, 195
Pliocene strata 35, 108, 118
Plum, hog 44
wild 44, 56, 61, 88
“Pocosin” of Pike Co. 99, 160
Beeosms of N. C. 99, 127
Patess45. 52, 11. TT.) 112. 222,
197, 202
Pond cypress 33,
164, 166
Ponds 36, 38, 39, 67, 80, 95,

Plateau

LOSS abel

108,

109, 115-117, 121, 182, 189-|
191

Poplar 34, 39, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52,
55, 57, G1, 62, 65, 69, 70,

71, 75, 77, 80, 83, 84, 87, 91,
93, 94, 96, 97, 101, 103, 106,

LOT. ANON DI3 WaT ys L215 1985)

200, 201
Population 29, 30, 186,

(see also under

descriptions )

regional

Populus (not specified) 200
fs deltoides 43, 60, 74, 82,
87, 93. 100; 105, 189, |
198 (see also Cotton- |
wood)
ef heterophylla 125, 189,198

Portland cement 90

Post oak 33. 39, 40, 48, 50, 52, 55,.|
57. 60, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, |
MOM ubihg k4O, Ser J86e0St,. 91,,|
939965 97 doen 105) 1%

138, 158, 198
Post oak flatwoods 39, 94-97, 158
Posts 45, 52, 68, 91, 102, 107, 128,
180, 197, 202
or potassium,
29, 36; 542-73?

95, 98, 104, 114

Soll 25:
85, 88,

in
81,

Potash

15G

5D, |

193-196 |

Pot-holes 73

Prairie region 12,

Prairies 86

Pratt, D. 15

Prattville, escarpment near, 81

Precipitation 18, 24, 188

Predictions of forest exhaustion

119, 204

Prentice, sawmill at, 94, 194, 195

Prickly ash 106, 110, 117

Prophecies 120

Prunus Americana 44, 56, 61, 88,
190

Caroliniana 55, 88,101, 190

serotina 44, 56, 69, 75, 110,
190, 200

umbellata 44, 190
Pump-iogs 46

/Pushmataha, climate of, 99, 188

|Pyriton 144

Pyrus angustifolia

84

“cc

(see Malus)

180, |

116, |

Quantitative
5, 9
| Quercus (not specified) 200
= acuminata (see Q. Muht-
enbergii)
alba 39, 48, 50, 55, 60, 65,
| 69, 75, 79, 82, 87, 93, 96,
1OO 105; aoe al Tso:
190, 198. (Additional
references under White
oak )
aquatica
brevifolia
Catesbaei

analyses of forests

(see Q. nigra)
(see Q. cinerea)
695 iar 80; 82.
Siew Son LOM ee MOn AO:
1%; 152; 190
: cinerea 55, 69, 75, 80, 82,
| SiO TO ae Ory tales
190
coccinea 39, 43, 50, 55, 60,
65, 69, 75, 82, 96, 101,
190
digitata (see Q.
Durandii 55, 87,
190
S falcata 39, 48, 50, 55, 60,
GI 715; Sr S82 87193:
SESA100F A050, 117;
134, 138, 190, 198 (see
also Red oak)

falcata)
93, 105,

218

Quercus geminata 110, 117, 128,

176, 190

Me laurifolia 55, 60, 69, 75,
82, 87, 93, 96, 101, 106,
110, 117, 160, 190

z lyrata 60, 75, 82, 87, 93,
100, 117, 190

‘* Margaretta 75, 87, 100,
11'7,) 190

“ Marylandica 39, 48, 50, 55,
60, 65, 69, 75, 80, 82, 87,
93, 96, 101, 105, 110, 117,
144, 190

Michauxii 39, 48, 55, 60,
GOD.) S2NiSGe 93, 96,
100, 105,-117, 190

ot minor (see Q. stellata)

ss Muhlenbergii 48, 55,
75, 105, 110, 190

sy myrtifolia 128

if nigra 43, 50, 55, 60, 69,
5. SO! G2. Si, ay (OG;
LOE OG SOP ai oO

s pagodaefolia 60, 75, 82,
87, 96, 100, 190

h Phellos 39, 43, 60, 69, 75,
82, 87, 93, 96, 101, 106,
117, 190, 198

Ks Prinus 43, 50, 55, 60, 65,
69, 75, 79, 132, 144, 150,
190

“ rubra 43, 50, 55, 60, 69, 75,
100, 190

Schneckii 43, 60, 87, 100,
105, 110, 190

‘s stellata 39, 48, 50, 55, 60,
65, 69, 75, 79, 82, 87, 93,
96, 100, 105, 117, 138, 158,
190, 190 (see also Post
oak )

us velutina 43, 50, 55, 60, 65,
69, 75, 80, 82, 100, 190

is virens (see next)

sf Virginiana 110,
190

60,

127, 174,

R

Radioactivity 18
Railroads 26, 41, 51, 53, 57, 62, 65.
84, 85, 98, 99, 102, 112, 1238,

205, 206

Rainfall 19, 20, 24, 188 (see also
under regional descrip-
tions )

Randolph County 146, 204

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Ravines 38, 48, 49, 53, 54, 60, 65,
68, 69, 74, 75, 78, 80, 82,
83, 92, 98, 98-100, 105, 106,
136, 190, 191
Red bay 65, 66, 69, 75, 80, 87, 101,
Aeleiee A De
“cedar (see Cedar)
cypress 33
“ gum 34, 46, 198 (see Sweet
gum)
haw 44 (see Haw)
“hills, southern, 97-108, 158-
161, 188, 195
“levels 98
“ maple 39, 44, 50, 56, 61, 66,
69, 76, 80, 83, 88, 98, 96, 101,
106,, TOS a ees
Mountain 58, 144
“ oak 33, 39, 48, 46, 47, 50, 52,
55, 57, 60, 62) 6GONetaeiiio:
77, 19, 82, 84, 87, 91, 93,
94, 96, 97, 100, 103, 105,
107, 110, 117, 121, 180, 1384;
138, 198, 201
Redbud 44, 50, 56, 61, 69, 75, 88,
93, 101, 105, 106, 110
Reed, F. W., report by, 13, 64, 67,
78,79
References explained 23
Rhus cotinoides 44
Ripley formation 92
River cypress 109, 116 (see T'aa-
odium distichum)
Roanoke, scene near, 146
Robarts, L. W., article by, 204
Robinia Pseudacacia 44, (46), 50,
66, 69, 191
Rock-houses 48
Roots (medicinal) 63
Rosin 57, 178, 180, 202, 203
Roth, F., work of, 12
Rotten Limestone 84, 85, 90, (154)
Roup’s Valley 13, 38

S

Salamanders 79, 92, 115, 186

Salix nigra 39, 48, 50, 55, 60, 69,
74, 79, 82, 87, 93, 96, 100,
105; 110; 117, 71257189

Salt in lime hills region 104

Salt Creek (Clarke Co.) 162

Salt marshes 126, 127

Sand, sandy soils 24, 29, 35, 58, 64,
72. 73,98, TO! SiPt Ss, S87,
89, 92, 95, 98, 100, 105, 108,
110, 118-118, 126, 127, 189-
191

INDEX.

219

Sand-hills 78, 85
Sand Mountain 11, 12, 47, 138
Sandstone 40, 41, 48, 53, 58, 59, 64,
f38, 18, 144,132, 1386, 138;
152, 189
Sash 62) 71, 77, 91, 102, 122, 199
Sassafras 44, 46, 50, 56, 61, 63,
66, 69, 75, 83, 93, 101, 106,
190
Sassafras oil 46
Savannas 114, 166, 189
Sawmills 32, 46, 52, 57, 62, 71, 77,
80, 81, 84, 91, 94, 97, 108,
10, AO AA Si120; 121, 125,
180, 182, 193-197, 206
Saw-palmetto 128
Scaly-bark hickory 39, 49, 60, 74,
87, 96, 132
Schistose rocks 67
Schwarz, G. F., 7, 18
Scrolls 199
Scrub of Florida 127
Scrub live oak 117, 176
Seasonal distribution of rain 19,
24, 36, 99, 186, 188
s fluctuation of water
Fluctuation )
Selma, climate of, 86, 188
“Chalk 84, 85, 154
Sequatchie Valley (Tenn.) 387, 40
Service-herry 44, 50, 56, 69, 75, 87
Shades Valley 58
Shale 48, 53, 54, 58, 67
Sheep 30
Sheffield, industries of, 47
Shelby County 13, 61
Shell mounds 126, 127
Shingles 7, 46, 62, 77, 102, 112, 122,
123, 125, 197, 199-202
Ships, ship-building 128, 199
Shoals 68, 148
Short-leaf pine 38, 38, 39, (40),
4346, 249.2 52% 55, f 571,59)
60, 62, 65, 68, 70, 71, TA,
76, 77, 79, 80, 84, 86, 87,
91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 99, 100,
102, 103, 105, 107, 109, 113,
116, 121, 127, 180, 138, 142,
148, 150, 158, 160, 178, 180,
198
Short-leaf pine belt 11, 72-78, 81,
82, 102, 150, 188, 195
Show-cases 31
Shuttles 46, 102, 199
Signs 206
Silver maple 44, 61, 76, 83, 88, 93,
101, 106

(see

Skidders 121
Slash pine 383, 100, 102, 109, 111,

26, el Ae 27 11 Gde
166, 176, 198, 203

Slippery elm 44, 55, 87

Sloe 44

Sloughs 42, 44, 61, 76, 838, 87, 88,
101, 110

Smilax 107

Smith, Hugene A. 10, 12-15, 19, 22,
34, 37, 38, 47, 48, 53, 54, 58,
64, 67, 72, 78, 81, 83, 84,
90-92, 95, 97, 103, 104, 108,
113, 119, 123, 126, 164, 166,
168, 174, 178, 182

Smithers Mt. (Madison Co.) 132

Soil analyses, chemistry, classifi-
eation, surveys, weather-
ing, ete. 14, 17, 19-21, 24,

53, 54, 116, 185, 186 (see
also under regional de-
scriptions)

Sourwood 44, 50, 56, 61, 66, 70,
76, 80, 83, 93, 96, 101, 106,
117

South America 205

* | Carolina, 10) 78; 97,115, 203

Southern Lumberman 11, 32-34,
467 chan O2Me ude Tia S80, 9;
94S OF, OS 107, fads, 120;
193

Southern red hills 97-103, 158-161,
188, 195

Southwestern pine hills 113-123,
166-171, 188, 189, 195

Spaniards 206

Spanish oak 39, 438, 50, 55, 60, 65,
69, 75, 82, 96, 101

Sparkleberry 117

Spokes 46, 63, 91, 102

Sporting goods 46, 199

Springs 49, 58, 59, 67, 74, 85, 98-
99, 104, 108, 116

Spruce 33, 84, 103

Spruce pine 33, 49. 82, 83, 87, 93,
100, 105, 107, 109, 116, 136,
198 ‘

St. Clair County 138

St. Louis limestone 41

St. Stephens rs 104, 162

Staves, stave-bolts 40, 52, 102, 107,
158, 201

Stelle, J. P., pamphlet by, 14, 118

Stemly, scene near, 142

Stills (see Turpentine)

Stock-laws 30, 31 (see also under
regional descriptions)

a BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

220

Stove-wood 31-82
Street brooms 46
Stubbs, W. C. 10
Students, assistance from 15, 31
Subterranean life 17, 79, (186)
streams 42, 53,
67, 85, 108
Sucarnochee formation 95
Sugar-cane 99

“ maple 44, 50, 56, 61, 69, 75,
S88, 101, 106, 110
Sulphur in lime hills 104
Sumter County 15, 88, 95,

59,

154-158

Sunlight, sunshine 20, 186
Swamp chestnut oak 33, 39, 48,
55. 60, 69, 75, 82, 87, 93, |
96, 100, 105, 117
hickory (74), 100, 105, 116 |
pine 49

post oak 82, 87

Swamps 19, 36, 42, 49, 74, 76, 79,
80, 82-84, 86-88, 90, 92, 93,
98, 100-102, 105, 106, 109,
110, 115-117, 123-125, 150, |
160, 172, 189-191

Sweet gum 34, 39, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52,
56, 61, 62; 66, 69; 71, 74,
75, 77, 80, 88; 84, 87, 91,
93, 94, 96, 9%, 101, 108,
106, 107, 110, 117, 121, 125- |
127, 134, 142, 198, 200, 201

Sweet-leaf 50, 51, 70, 76, 101, 106, |
TG

Sycamore 39, 44, 46, 50, 56, 61, |
62.469, “75s ‘83h 18H 91, 93; |
96, 101, 106, 110, 117, 156,
198, 200, 201

Symplocos 50, 70, 76, 101, 106, 117, |
191

Aly

Yalladega 58, 188, 204
HS County 13, 61-64, 142, 180 |
ay Creek 65
Tallapoosa County 148
’ i River 82, 148
Tanbark, tanning extract
202
Tanks 79, 206
Tarodium (not specified) 200
<§ distichum 43, 68, 74, |
82, se oy ad 105, 109, |
116, 150, 189, 198
(Ad a ge refer-
ences under Cypress) |

52, 66, |

Tertiary

'Treeless areas 86,

| Troy 97,

| Tupelo

Taxodium imbricarium 109, 111,
116, 164, 166, 189, 198
Technical names 28, 189, 207
Telegraph and _ telephone
(see Poles)

poles

| Temperate regions 18

Temperature 18-20, 186, 188 (see
also under’ regional de-
scriptions )

Tennessee 29, 37, 47, 84, 89, 91, 97

Riv er 12, 37, 38, 40, "42,
51, 59, 1384, 191

valley 12, 18, 25, 37-47,
50, 52, 58, 59, 62, 74,
128, 132-135, 188, 191,
195

Tensaw River 124, 172

Terraces 73, 109

formations 14, 35 (see
also. Eocene, Oligocene,
Pliocene)

Texas 84, 208

Thomasville, climate of, 99, 188

Thornton, HE. Q. 14, 84, 97, 104

Tibetans 206

Ticks 31, 90

Tide 124

Tietie, tighteye (see Tyty)

Tilia 44, 50, 56, 61, 66, 69, 76, 83,
88, 93, 101, 106, 182, 191,
200

Tillandsia 105

| Timber-camp products 201, 202

Titi (see Tyty)

Tombighee River
1, SS

Topography 20, 22,

11, 82, 90; 102,

26, 36, 52, 54,

57, 106, 185-187 (see also
under regional descrip-
tious)

Tram-roads (32), 46, 57, 71, 77,

81, 91, 94, 97,
A137 124, 182
90, 154
Tropical vegetation 18, 125
100, 160

Tsuga 49, 136, 189

102, 103, 107,

'Tunnels in coastal plain 98

Tunomey, M. 14, 37, 47, 53, 58, 67,
84, 86, 92, 97, 104, 113, 123,
126

guin 34, 44, 46, 61, 62, 76,
77, 83, 84, 88, 91, 101, 110;
117, 125, 126, 134, 150, 198-
201

oak 80, 82,
110, A. 152

Turkey 93, 101, 105;

INDEX. 221
=

Turpentine, turpentine stills, 57, | Vehicles and parts 32, 199 (see al-

WOM, L125 119-122" 170; 178; so Buggies, Hubs, Spokes,

180, 202-204 (see also) Wagons)

Naval stores) | Veneers 32, 102, 1238, 197, 201
Tuscahoma formation 97 Verbena, scene near, 146
Tuscaloosa 10, 14, 74, 80, 150, 180, Viburnum rufidulin 44, 50, 56,

188 61, 70, 76, 88, 106, 191
He County 11, 25, 54, 57,) Vicksburg formation 104, 108
78, -79, 150, 152, 180, | Vitis 156
204
formation 72, 73, 78, | W
95, 114 | Wagon factories, wagons, 40, 46,
Tuscumbia limestone 41 638, 91
ig spring 42 Walker County 54, 56, 57, 140
Tuskegee 10, 88 Walnut (black) 438, 44, 46, 55, 60,
Tyty 75, 80, 83, 93, 106, 110, 111, | 74, 87, 105, 132, 200
Wale, Tees alas} Walnuts 46
Warrior coal field 12, 18, 52, 53
U ES River: Iie 4 Sie iow to.

79, 138, 150; 191

Ulmus (not specified) 152, 200 jut Sa ack coacar 104, 114, 119,

“ alata 39, 44, 55, 61, 69, 7, | i es, x
82, 87. 93, 96, 101, 106, | Waste-burners 77, 80, 97, (121),

182
a‘ Be eis oe, 8, 55. G1. 75,| Water oak 34, 43, 50, 51, 55, 60,
ee os POL Bao 69; - 75; 180,82. 87, 93,96:

87, 96, 101, 125, 190, 198
“ fulva 44, 55, 61, Sz, 190
oS serotina 55, 190

LOTS OG) al One te7,
Waterfalls 53, 65, 186, 138
Water-power 35, 68

ae cocinds en oi) oa dna ©) /| WebbpR: Ds. anticle by, 1hy 84, 95

2 : | Webster’s Dictionary &:
Uniontown, climate of, 86, 188 Web fers Dictionary 83
rae Ms : : : | Weeds 89
Marted States Bureau of “Soils 14) | yrs KO
Dela ei | West Virginia 52
UG AU Ps aitsh 7 ¥ : ; :
7 8 95. 118 | Wetumpka, fall-line at, 68
126) aes ’| Wheel stock 202 (see also Hubs

= iol and Spokes)
Census 12, 13, 29, ne
32, (56), 88, 119, | W heeling, scene near, 144
|
|

| White cypress 33
wd 9 | .
So te TOR 200 ob Saee= 9 Gate ae: anemy de Page tay.

204
i K Le ve | 50, 52, 55, 57, 60, 62, 65,
sr Mec 69, 71, 74, 15, 77, 79, 82,
199 D Balad " &4, 87, 91, 98, 94, 96, 97,
i Fae er ey. Sore 99, 100, 103, 105, 107, 110,
ewes SUENEY. | 117, 121, 132, 198, 201
“ce “ce National? FreRboe| ‘S pine oe 46, Dike 62, tals Mit
ae i ap 87, 91, 94
ium 12 | See : ;
re i i | Wilcox County 99
x Post Office Dept. ala cherry 44, 56, 69, 75, 110
Weather Bureau,
24 188 | “ olive 160 (see Osmanthus)
Upland willow oak 80 (see Ouee] Ww ae wit, is
eet) | Willow 39, 43, 50, 55, 60, 69, 74,
79, 82, 87, 93, 96, 100, 105,
V TOO aba bre nae
“Willow oak 34, 39, 48, 55,. 60, 69,
Valley Head 59 75, 82, 87, 93, 96, 101, 106,
Vance, L. J., article by, 204 117, 198

222 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

Wills’s Valley 58, 59 | Worms in soil 17

Winchell, A., paper by, 15, 97
Wind, effects of, 127 x
Winston County 48, 49, 54, 136
Wire-grass country 90, 109 Xanthorylum Clava-Herculis 88
Witch-hazel 160
Women in black belt 89, 90 ne
Wood-burning locomotives, 112,

122 3183 Yaupon 109-111, 117, 164
Wood distillation 122, 203 Yellow-wood 56
Woodenware 199
Wood’s Bluff formation 97 Z

Woodville, scenes at or near, 1382,
180 Zones, geographical, 20

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CORPS, 1913.

HareneraAllen, smith, Ph. D., Ll. D.222---==-=---—=— State Geologist
Waites oProuty, Ph. 22225522552 - 22 == Chief Assistant
Tealeeiie Sy 018 (ou kee Se ee ee ee Chemist
HE DRG? 1S le Site 1 Curator of Museum
Mieeiternert hl. Msmitho =~ — = 2. Voluntary Assistant Curator
Rolmgeviesharper) eh. D2 28S) 222s. - Se Se Botanist
Guilt EI Oa Cabal cs rain Field Assistant
C. A. Abele____- Clerk in charge of Statistics of Mineral Production
aImeswas. Andersonl=—- = 250 = a8 Clerk in charge of Mailing List
(lini a Stenographer

RIVER GAUGE HEIGHT OBSERVERS.

Oh J St a Jackson’s Gap, Tallapoosa River
io ie (0G a Riverside, Coosa River
IME MEM EISbOS =.2 2.5604 2th 2 ee 5 eee eee Epes, Tombigbee River
Ge, EEE ha ee eee Pera, Pea River
= 2. LUIGI ee ee Se ee See ee ee Beck, Conecuh River

From the records of daily observations of the gauge readings at
these places when extended through sufficient time, the calculations

of available horsepower to be obtained from the different streams are
made.

(223)

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lus dt} sie patty eueta Rebiiotzo. niet 2
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~~

PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS

OF THE

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA.

HE publications of the Survey comprise (1) Administrative

i reports, (2) Reports of Progress, (8) Special reports, (4)

Monographs, (5) Bulletins, (6) Circulars, (7) Maps, and (8)
Museum papers. A series of County reports is planned for the
near future.

The administrative reports contain little or nothing of scientific
interest, and are published in limited editions, not intended for
general distribution. The reports of progress were discontinued
long ago, and are no longer available for distribution. The special
reports mostly deal with a single coal field, mountain, valley, or
series of formations, while the monographs treat of some industry,
resource, or group of organisms throughout the state, or as far as
it extends. The bulletins deal with a considerable variety of sub-
jects, but are usually smaller and less technical than the mono-
graphs and special reports. The museum papers deal with our
museum and the collections therein, and museum problems in gen-
eral, and are not sent to a regular mailing list, but only to persons
and institutions specially interested in such matters.

Special report no. 10 is sold for one dollar, while all the other
publications still available are distributed gratuitously except for
the amount of postage. No postage is asked for the circulars and
small geological map, or for publications sent to foreign countries.
Unless otherwise indicated, all publications of the first five classes
are octavos, in paper covers. The larger maps are folded and en-
closed in stout manila envelopes appropriately labeled.

Requests for publications should be addressed to

EUGENE A. SMITH,
State Geologist,
University, Ala.

ADMINISTRATIVE REPORTS.
(ALL BY EUGENE A. SMITH.)

Report for 1873. 8 pp.
Report for March 31, 1883, to Sept. 30, 1884. (Included in Spe-
cial report no. 1, pp. 563-570. Not printed separately.)
Report for Oct. 1, 1884, to Sept. 30, 1888. 24 pp.
Report for Oct. 1, 1888, to Sept. 30, 1890. 18 pp.
Report for Oct. 1, 1890, to Sept. 30, 1892. 22 pp.
Report for 1894-1896. 18 pp.
Report for 1896-1898. 21 pp.
Report for 1902-1906. 19 pp.
Report for 1906-1910. 19 pp.
(225)

226 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

REPORTS OF PROGRESS.
(BY EUGENE A. SMITH.)
(All now out of print.)

1. Report of progress for 1874. 139 pp. 1875. Devoted to the
Archaean or Metamorphic region.

2. Report of progress for 1875. 220 pp. 1876. Chiefly devoted
to the Paleozoic formations of Bibb, Shelby, Talladega and Cal-
houn Counties. Contains chapters on coal mining by T. H.
Aldrich and R. P. Rothwell, on coal plants by Leo Lesquereux, on
the cotton worm by A. R. Grote, and a posthumous report on the
Cahaba coal field by M. Tuomey.

3. Report of progress for 1876. 100 pp. 1876. Chiefly de-
voted to the Silurian formations of Roup’s and Jones’s Valleys,
and to the Coosa coal field. Contains a catalogue of the fresh-
water and land shells of Alabama, by James Lewis, and a small
map of the southwestern end of the Coosa coal field.

4, Report of progress for 1877 and 1878. 159 pp., 4 folded col-
ored county maps. 1879. Chiefly devoted to the Tennessee valley
and the Warrior coal field. Contains a chemical report by Henry
McCalley.

5. Report of progress for 1879 and 1880. 158 pp., 2 maps. 1881.
Chiefly devoted to the western part of the Warrior coal field and
to that part of the state lying north of the Tennessee River; the
former part prepared with the assistance of Joseph Squire, and
the latter written by Henry McCalley.

SPECIAL REPORTS.

1. On the Warrior coal field; by Henry McCalley. 571 pp. 1886.
Exhausted.

2. Report on the Cahaba coal field; by Joseph Squire. With an
appendix on the geology of the valley regions adjacent to the Ca-

haba coal field, by Eugene A. Smith. 189 pp., 7 plates, and folded
map in pocket. 1890. Cloth-bound. Exhausted.

3. Report on the Coal Measures of the plateau region of Ala-
bama; by Henry McCalley. Including a report on the Coal Meas-
ures of Blount County by A. M. Gibson. 238 pp., map, and folded
colored plate of geological sections. 1891. Exhausted.

4. Report on the geological structure of Murphree’s Valley, and
its minerals and other materials of economic value; by A. M. Gib-
son. 132 pp. 1893. Postage 3 cents.

5. Report on the Coal Measures of Blount Mountain; by A. M.
Gibson. 80 pp., map and sections. 18938. Exhausted.

6. Report on the geology of the coastal plain of Alabama; by
Eugene A. Smith, Lawrence C. Johnson, and Daniel W. Langdon,
Jr.; with contributions to its paleontology, by T. H. Aldrich and
K. M. Cunningham. xxiv + 759 pp., 29 plates (including several
folded charts of sections). 1894. Exhausted.

7. Report on the Coosa coal field; by A. M. Gibson. 148 pp.,
one plate of sections. 1895. Exhausted.

8. Report on the valley regions of Alabama (Paleozoic strata);
by Henry McCalley. Part 1. On the Tennessee valley region.
xvii + 436 pp., 9 plates (one of which is a map for this and the
next). 1896. Postage 10 cents.

9. (Same), Part 2. On the Coosa valley region. xxii + 862
pp., 26 plates (one of which is a folded chart of geological sections
for this and the preceding). 1897. Postage 20 cents.

10. Report on the Warrior coal basin; by Henry McCalley. xiii
+ 327 pp., 7 plates (all folded charts of sections), and large folded
map. 1900. Price $1.00. Postage 16 cents additional. (Can be

SUPPLEMENT. 227

had with either pasteboard or paper covers; the latter untrimmed
and more suitable for binding.)

MONOGRAPHS.

1. Report for the years 1881 and 1882, embracing an account
of the agricultural features of the state; by Eugene A. Smith.
xvi + 615 pp., 8 colored maps. 1883. Cloth-bound. Exhausted.

2. List of the fresh-water and marine Crustacea of Alabama,
with descriptions of the new species and synoptical keys for iden-
tification; by C. L. Herrick. Large quarto. 56 pp., 8 plates. Oct.
1887. (From Memoirs of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison
University.) Exhausted.

3. Iron making in Alabama; by Wm. B, Phillips. 164 pp.
1896. Exhausted.

4. Iron making in Alabama, second edition; by Wm. B. Phil-
lips. vili + 380 pp. 1898. Exhausted.

5. Plant life of Alabama. An account of the distribution,
modes of association, and adaptations of the flora of Alabama, to-
gether with a systematic catalogue of the plants growing without
cultivation in the state; by Charles Mohr. xii + 921 pp., colored
map, 2 half-tone portraits, and 12 other plates (line-engravings
of certain Alabama plants). Oct., 1901. (Published jointly with
U. S. National Herbarium.) Postage 32 cents. (The bulk of our
edition is bound in black cloth, but not very substantially. Per-
sons desiring to put on better bindings of their own can have un-
a i copies in paper covers by signifying a desire to that ef-
ect.

6. The underground water resources of Alabama; by Eugene
A. Smith. xvi + 388 pp. 30 plates. 1907. Cloth-bound (some in
red and some in black). Postage 15 cents.

7. Iron making in Alabama, third edition; by Wm. B. Phillips.
254 pp., 31 plates. Dec., 1912. Cloth-bound (but a few paper-
covered copies are available for those who may prefer them).
Postage 13 cents.

BULLETINS.

1. Preliminary report on the Tertiary fossils of Alabama and
Mississippi; by T. H. Aldrich. Contributions to the Eocene paleon-
- tology of Alabama and Mississippi; by Otto Meyer. 85 pp., 9
plates, 1886. Exhausted.

2. On the phosphates and marls of Alabama; bv Eugene A.
Smith. 82 pp. 1892. Exhausted.

3. A preliminary report on a part of the lower gold belt of
Alabama, in the counties of Chilton, Coosa and Tallapoosa; by
Wm. B. Phillips. 97 pp., 4 plates (including map). 1892. Ex-
hausted.

4. Report on the geology of northeastern Alabama and adja-
cent portions of Georgia and Tennessee; by C. Williard Hayes. 86
pp., 2 colored plates (one of which is a folded geological map).
1892. Exhausted.

5. A preliminary report on the upper gold belt of Alabama, in
the counties of Cleburne, Randolph, Clay, Talladega, Elmore,
Coosa and Tallapoosa; by Wm. M. Brewer. Supplementary notes
on the most important varieties of the metamorphic or crystalline
rocks of Alabama, their composition, distribution, structure, and
microscopic characters; by Eugene A. Smith, G. W. Hawes, J. M.
Clements and A. H. Brooks. vii + 202 pp., 3 plates. 1896. Post-
age 5 cents.

6. Preliminary report on the clays of Alabama; by Heinrich
Ries. (Includes chapter on the geological relations of the clays of
Alabama, by Eugene A. Smith.) viii + 220 pp. 1900. Exhausted.

228 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA.

7. A preliminary report on a part of the water-powers of Ala-
bama; by B. M. Hall. 188 pp., map and 4 plates. 1903. Ex-
hausted.

8. The materials and manufacture of Portland cement; by Ed-
win C. Eckel. The cement resources of Alabama; by Eugene A.
Smith. 93 pp., 16 plates (including colored geological map of the
state). 1904. Postage 4 cents. (The map can be had separately.
See list of maps, below.)

9. Index to the mineral resources of Alabama; by Eugene A.
Smith and Henry McCalley. 79 pp., map (same as in Bull. 8) and
6 plates. 1904. Postage 3 cents.

10. Reconnoissance report on the Fayette gas field, Alabama;
by M. J. Munn.- (In co-operation with the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey.) 66 pp., outline map, folded chart of sections, and folded
colored geological map. Oct., 1911. Postage 4 cents.

11. Roads and road materials of Alabama; by Wm. F. Prouty.
(Includes chapters by Thos. M. Owen, R. P. Boyd, J. T. Bullen, W.
S. Keller, and E. B. Kay.) 148 pp., 20 plates (including colored
map). Oct., 1911. Postage 6 cents.

12. Statistics of the mineral production of Alabama for 1910;
by C. A. Abele and others. 51 pp. 1912. Postage 2 cents.

13. Statistics of the mineral production of Alabama for 1911;
by C. A. Abele and others. 64 pp. April, 1913. Postage 2 cents.

CIRCULARS.

1. Documents showing the nature of the work done by the U.
S. Geological Survey in the states. 3 pp. Jan., 1895.

2. Abstract of Alabama clay tests. 1 p., quarto size. Nov.,
1897. Exhausted.

3. List of publications. (This is revised at frequent intervals,
and only the latest edition is kept in stock.)

MAPS.

(Not including those which are bound with other publications and
not distributed separately.)

1. Geological map of Alabama (in colors), 24 x 38 in., scale 10
miles to the inch; by Eugene A. Smith. Accompanied by an ex-
planatory chart of the same size. 1894. Exhausted.

2. Map of the Warrior coal basin, with columnar sections; by
Henry McCalley. 35 x 39 inches. Nov., 1899. (Belongs with Spe-
cial report no. 10; not distributed separately.)

3. Geological map of Alabama, in colors; by Eugene A. Smith.
8% x 11 in. 1904. (Bound with Bulletins 8 and 9, and also dis-
tributed separately.)

4, Revised map of the southeastern part of the Cahaba coal
field; compiled mainly from the map of Joseph Squire and field
notes by George N. Brewer; by Eugene A. Smith. 21 x 27 in.
(Not colored.) 1905. Postage 2 cents.

5. Map of the Coosa coal field (colored), with sections; by Wm.
F. Prouty. 31 x 41 in. Dec., 1912. Postage 2 cents.

MUSEUM PAPERS.

1. Smith Hall, the new museum and home of the Geological
Survey. 7 pp.,1 plate. May, 1910. Postage 1 cent.

. The museum as an educator; by Herbert H. Smith. 25 pp.,
8 plates. May, 1912. Postage 3 cents.

3. Directions for collecting land shells, penniwinkles, and mus-
sel shells; by Herbert H. Smith. 12 pp. (1912.) Postage 1 cent.

ry
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PAS

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA

WALTER BRYAN JONES, STATE GEOLOGIST

MONOGRAPH 9

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF
ALABAMA

PART 2
CATALOGUE OF THE TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES

OF ALABAMA, WITH THEIR ECONOMIC PROP:
ERTIES AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION,

BY ROLAND M. HARPER

UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

1928

a

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA
WALTER BRYAN JONES, STATE GEOLOGIST

IN COOPERATION WITH

STATE COMMISSION OF FORESTRY

PAGE S. BUNKER, STATE FORESTER

MONOGRAPH 9

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF
ALABAMA

PART 2
CATALOGUE OF THE TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES
OF ALABAMA. WITH THEIR ECONOMIC PROP-

ERTIES AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION.

BY ROLAND M. HARPER

UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

1928

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

To His Excellency,
Governor Bibb Graves,
Montgomery, Alabama:

Dear Sir:

I have the honor to transmit herewith Part 2 of a report on
the Economic Botany of Alabama, by Roland M. Harper, to con-
stitute the ninth of the Survey’s series of Monographs.

The first work under this general title (Monograph 8), which
divided the state into natural regions, and discussed the composi-
tion and utilization of the forests in each region, was published in
1913. The second part, herewith transmitted, classifies the same
forests by species, giving for every kind of tree, shrub and woody
vine known to grow wild in the state its economic properties and
local distribution. Later parts in contemplation will take up some
of the useful herbs, noxious weeds, ete.

Since the publication of Part 1 the author has continued his
explorations of Alabama intermittently (alternating with similar
work in other states), for periods ranging from a few days to
several months in most of the intervening years. On account of
the Survey’s limited funds, some of his traveling in recent years
has been done at his own expense; and for over six months in
1927 the State Commission of Forestry bore the entire expense of
the work in order to expedite its completion. Our thanks are
therefore due tc Col. Page S. Bunker, State Forester, for making
possible its appearance at this time.

Very respectfully,

WALTER B. JONES,
State Geologist.

University, Ala., June, 1928.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CORPS

Walter ls: \Noness tiny 2 ee a State Geologist
heliccy bat Seale nbs st 22 a cps es ial Nia a Staff Geologist
Moiese nemmes: teh Pits er te ee Geologist
PeOnee ale Nuts Doe. Oe UA! tt iin ae Geologist
InoiddMyNinbrarpen, Phsh): 2st? ye) eee Pe a Geographer
ROnetNS. tdadees, Le. ames sete oe NS ee ae Chemist
Bienes tin CMMI Gee. by, a8 Be ee ee Secretary
William LL. Haltom, A.B. "Curator of the Museum
Wirs-sEler berth jy omiibis 2) Rahs.) Cer dad \ssistant Curator
Pimomive=Wiae AW ail ers ie i ee Stenographer

COMMITTEE ON SURVEY PUBLICATIONS
His Excellency, Bibb Graves, Governor of Alabama.
Hon. John Brandon, Secretary of State.

Dr. Walter B. Jones, State Geologist.

3

TABLE OMCONTENTS

Page
MIMIC Fp Si 22 ORY a ea es ain es Lis ea a 9-38
Work of Dr. Mohr and his contemporaries —_____ She NOE)
Pmeldawork or the;writers-2 5 4 5S ees 10-11
Mirae ERI Coe ClUCC) 2s Se Nee Fe ie to ee et ae 12-22
memciples ob Classifications. Oe es BS) 23-25
Ree TICI AIG pe ene ee 25-26
Weanition or tree. shrub, etc;2 24 2h ee 27-29
Peo Or; breatimentyes 2 ur 1 a ee Bee 29-32
eaeral Lesions, soil and climate. oo 7 os ee 32-38
See MERC) CATA OMG: ha: 4 1 2 abe. nn EA 39-323
(For list of families see pp. 325-326.)
PeMERGOS PEI WIGs Sess erat Ae 3h cs ee 39-72
BMS VCHEIS! | x tt le ke eden ee! 12-323
MeROCOLVIECONIS = 2: = mort Bean ese eee 72-86
Dicotyledonsinc:.... 7 Se ae Eat ee ES 87-323
TACOS Call 2 og tert ls AS oe aoe Wal Ul oc) 87-160
Poly Petaae. riot ts eal eel ee Rea eee Pe 160-284
(Galmppetalde, x tases ee Le ae, Pee coat 285-323
Pummuitry. OF the catalocue -! 9. ae SS eee 324-327
Beeeereonial SNOtese ee abe eels! hoest ah VEE eee 328-339
Repmeeavhis: ati COPTeCLiONS 26 fetus Sete ee 339-340

SE MN Na ohh on i ea Se) he sheen Ee Ue 341-357

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

MAPS

Page
PONAEUbal “KeGiONS...., 298-2 Le) e ee 33
PSO LOL ellity 5-2 eee ates ie 2 TN eo en ee d4
Sewaverace. temperatures 28 ee! 2 Ae No ne 35
AeeyMinter. caitiball, Soo05 2) see Fee eee oe See a 36
Be mumimer -raintall) eye es! ee ee ee 7
Ge MUS: PAQLUST FAS oteran Oe") Oo i ee 44.
Meee Ws: J llwo nie > es eee eh ht) 48
&: Pinus Virgumand and Pinus glabra. 3. 2 ee 57
Os Laroduen (awoxSpecies) 225s Ae 64
10: cemeperus <Vorginiana. 20 Pe 7
tibsbhvee “pals! int ea) a 81
dee Wbyrice “(four Species) — 2s. et el ot 98
LS OUeKCUS WMONIONG. 2) 2) 2 eee ata bg
(aesOuercus Catesbaer. 90 ee 128
PM VORIGR CUS (CORON CG. <M ie, t? Le ae ee 132
16. Magnolia glauca and Magnolia grandiflora. 165
iiitagnolia. “mocrophyliae <0...) SS een 170
18. Ilhicium Floridanum 2050 oi Ee 175
Lo. cl ydranges quercipolid.. 2 22! 18 Oe ee 189
woe C yrilla and Cli tonta S21 ee oh 242
vie Mer glabra: and Tex ‘myrisf ola. 20s es 245
Cen UV SSOs URUTLOR Oe eee eee Oe ee ee 284
caOsmanthus Americana op. S11 bee ee 308

HALF-TONE FIGURES

1 Pinus -palusivs, Baldwin Cofinty:. 2. --7 7° 2) eee 40
me anus palustris, Covineton, County 2 =< ss. 41
3. Pinus palustris (turpentined), Mobile County___________ 42
4. Pmus Elhotiu, Baldwin County... - a
a. Pinus aeda: “Litscalodsa ‘County 2 aa See 49
6. Pinus Taeda (trunk) Tuscaloosa County____.______ 50
Y. 8. Pimus: serotina, Autauga” County... ee 52
9: Pinus echinata, ‘Tuscaloosa County 22. eee 53
10,.Pinus glabra, Pike County. 3 <2 8. eae 55
dA Pinds..glaora..<trunk)) Dale ‘County se ain 56
12. Pinus Virginiana, Tuscaloosa County___________ 59
13. Taxodium distichum, Tuscaloosa County —____________ 62
14. Taxodium distichum, Montgomery County. 63
15. Taxodium ascendens, Baldwin County_____________- = 66
16. Juniperus Virginiana, Jefferson County_____________ 69
%. Juniperus Virginiana (burned), Madison County.

18. Arundinaria macrosperma, Tuscaloosa County.

List oF ILLUSTRATIONS 7

19. Arundinaria macrosperma, Tuscaloosa County 75
20. Arundinaria tecta, Tuscaloosa County. 77
21. Rhapidophyllum Hystrix, Conecuh County__-_______ 80
aeeeencoria Pecan, Perry County 2-2 90
emiaacoria Pecan, Marengo County 90
omnnorur ovals (2), Jetferson County = 2). 2 93
MN IOI OUGIIS (GES SNE Se on ot a ee Be 95
MarR OVOLUS (i oe meet si 2, Ad se AE 96
27. Fagus grandifolia, Morgan Cob 01 (ea ane Ste ns DDS 107
28. Quercus Virginiana, Mobile Count ye ogee sk 20 ee eC ae 120
pumouercus velutina, ‘Tuscaloosa County. 123
suemouercus Catesbact, Autauga County. = 127
memwuercus Marylandica, Kimore County) 2S 130
dz. Quercus Arkansana (?) (trunk), Pike County 133
Peemouercus Arkansana (?), Pike County. = 2) 135
BEMUCE CUS AY RONSONG) an le ew S55 tees hae Sy EAS 136
meouercus obiusa, Lowndes County. os 138
Remo uercus laurtfolid, cultivated <2. 139
Beem tercus lourtfolia , (twig). a 140
38. Quercus Phellos and Q. laurifolia, cultivated ___.__________ 141
Mmmeinceirees 24 years later. 2. 8 eal es eh Pe 141
MEET CUS LON OSS (WAG) Soe J eee 143
pee aris alata, Madison County... 90:0) ee ee 145
eeemeeancra aquatica, Baldwin County. 2. = 2 ee 148
ao. Celtis Mississippiensis (?) Sumter County. =) 150
‘44. Phoradendron flavescens, Tuscaloosa County 156
45. Magnolia grandiflora, Autauga County_______________ 163
46. Magnolia macrophylla, Tuscaloosa County 169
4. Ilicium Fleridanum, ‘Tuscaloosa County______ 174

48. 49. Sassafras variifolium, Tuscaloosa County 182
50. Hydrangea quercifolia, Bibb County 187
51. Hydrangea quercifolia, cultivated 188
pee Neviusia Alabamensis, cultivated. 195
Meeenycts Ot) SAliiee a. Wel ee bP ae Sel ee ET 196
SeaGleditsia triacanthos, Jackson County... 0) = = 219
BeClarastis tinctoria, luscaloosa County. 221
56. Croton Alabamensis, Tuscaloosa County_________________ 228
memeroron. Alabamensis (flowers) 2222 = 2 fat 229
58. Cotinus Americanus (trunk), Madison County. 233
SMES SwO Saline LheeS 2 sae Se ied Se 234
6C. Cotinus Americanus, Morgan County asda Sa Fou 3k REO 235
bieseounys Americanus (flowers )< 22-0 ou 6 oh 236
me Aesculus poriflora, Vuscaloosa County...) 2.) 258
enCormus |lormad, Baldwin County 32 60) a 277
Boa yssa: pijlond, Wawrence Coptitye eo ee 281
ba. dViissa nwiplora. Limestone County 0 283
Broom ait old.» Delwalb. Countye ves 2 ete a 290

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INTRODUCTION.
WORK OF DR. MOHR AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES

Dr. Charles Mohr’s great work, the Plant Life of Alabama,
a book of over 900 pages, published jointly by the United States
National Herbarium and the Geological Survey of Alabama shortly
after the author’s death in 1901, gives for all the flowering plants
known in the state at that time (about 2400 species and varieties )
their bibliographic history, general and local distribution, and a
few words on their economic properties (if any). Dr. Mohr made
no special effort to cover the state thoroughly with his botanical
explorations, no funds having been allotted for that particular pur-
pose during his lifetime. His field work seems to have been
chiefly restricted to the vicinity of Mobile, his home, and Cullman,
where he spent several summers with a brother who lived there,
and to a few trips made for the Louisville and Nashville Railroad
and the United States Department of Agriculture to important
timber regions, such as Clay, Washington and Escambia Counties.
(In the preface of his book he expresses his indebtedness to the
presidents of the three railroads which entered Mobile at that time,
presumably indicating that he enjoyed free transportation on
them. )

For information about other parts of the state he depended
largely on contemporary local botanists, such as Prof. M. C. Wil-
son at Florence, Dr. Eugene A. Smith at Tuscaloosa, Prof. F. S.
Earle and several associates at Auburn, and on the records left
by some of his predecessors, chiefly Buckley, Peters, and Denny.*

*Scattered through Mohr’s Plant Life are references to about forty
species of vascular plants reported trom Suggsville, or from Clarke County
without definite locality, by a Dr. Denny; but he is not mentioned in the
introductory chapter dealing with the history of botanical exploration, and
his first name appears nowhere in the book. From other sources it has
been ascertained that he was Andrew Denny, M.D., who was born in Massa-
chusetts in 1812, settled at Suggsville about 1836, and died at Jackson about
1870. He is said to have been the leading physician of Clarke County in
his day (and also somewhat of an inventor) ; and he published a paper on
the medicinal plants of Clarke County in 1852 (see bibliography below),
which may have been known to Dr. Mohr.

Dr. Mohr’s book contains the names of about seventy botanists who
contributed something to the knowledge of the flora of Alabama by collect-
ing specimens, etc., but a considerable number of them worked on fungi
only.

10 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

The names of a few other botanists who worked in Alabama before
or since Dr. Mohr’s time are indicated in the bibliography of the
present report, but some others have left no records of their work
other than specimens deposited in various herbaria.

Like nearly all other botanists who have worked on plant dis-
tribution, before and since, Dr. Mohr does not seem to have made
full notes while traveling (especially by rail), but must have de-
pended mostly on dried specimens, literature, and memory. But
he did remarkably well under the circumstances, and his book is
still without much doubt the best state flora ever published.

Considering woody plants only, in addition to nearly 100
species which are so widely distributed in Alabama that Dr. Mohr
did not attempt to list the counties in which he had seen them, he
reported 148 species from Mobile County, 89 from Baldwin, 69
from Tuscaloosa (mostly on the authority of Dr. Smith), 46 from
Clarke (mostly by Dr. Denny), 41 from Montgomery, 37 from
Clay, 37 from Lee (nearly all by Prof. Karle and his associates),
32 from Dekalb, and so on; but none from Bullock, Chambers,
Conecuh, Coosa, Covington, Crenshaw, Geneva, Greene, Lowndes,
Pickens, or Shelby, although he must have often passed through
some of these on the train. The southeastern corner of the state
is very sparingly represented by any plant records in the book.

FIELD WORK OF THE WRITER

The present writer came to Alabama in the fall of 1905, and
made it a point to visit every county in the state within a year.
except one which had no railroad then; and that was visited in
1908 and later. By this time every county has been visited more
than once, in different years, sometimes at state expense and some-
times on pleasure trips. Notes have been taken on practically every
mile of travel by rail, for many of the commoner trees and shrubs
are just as easily identified from a moving train as by herbarium
specimens, and this makes my notes on their distribution far more
complete than they would be otherwise.* In recent years consid-
erable information has been gathered on automobile trips; but that

*The Legislature of 1919 enacted a law requiring the windows of in-
trastate passenger trains in Alabama to be screened. If that law had been
in force when I first came to the state it would have been a considerable
handicap to my work.

INTRODUCTION 11

method of transportation has its disadvantages, for it is difficult
to write legibly while traveling on a rough road, and good roads
do not usually pass close to much natural vegetation. Long trips
on foot have been made in most of the counties, enabling the verifi-
cation of many tentative car-window identifications, and the find-
ing of many species not visible at all from the highways.

A few hundred days of field work, scattered over a period of
more than 22 years, have made the notes on distribution in the
present report much more detailed than any hitherto attempted in
Alabama or any neighboring state. The following catalogue is
based on about 30,000 locality records for trees and half as many
for shrubs. Of course no one ever lives long enough to explore
every square mile of a state as large as ours, and a hundred years
from now there may still be important areas in Alabama botanic-
ally unexplored. But our knowledge of the distribution of all the
commoner trees is now reasonably complete, and future changes
will consist mostly of discovering new localities for the rarer
species (or the destruction of some localities now on record), and
splitting species now regarded as one into two or more.

Some idea of the relative completeness with which different
parts of the state have been explored by the writer may be afforded
by the statement that his personal records show 92 native species
of trees and 83 of shrubs and woody vines from ‘Tuscaloosa
County, 124 woody plants from Choctaw, 121 from Bibb, 120 from
Chilton, 119 from Washington, 116 from Sumter, 113 from Clarke,
112 from Covington, Jefferson and Talladega, 111 from Baldwin,
110 from Pike, 108 from Geneva, 106 from Clay, 105 from But-
ler, Elmore and Monroe, 103 from Autauga, etc.*

*These counts were made a few years ago, and subsequent field work,
particularly in 1927, when special attention was given to parts of the state
more easily reached from Montgomery than from Tuscaloosa, would in-
crease the figures for some of these counties, especially Autauga, Clarke
and Monroe. Some of the counties from which I have the fewest records
were covered pretty well by Dr. Mohr or some of the othercollectors cited
in his book. Every county is mentioned in the catalogue, however.

12 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

LITERATURE CITED.

The writer's notes on the distribution and utilization of our
woody plants have been supplemented by examination of all the
easily available literature on the subject (Mohr’s Plant Life of
Alabama first and foremost, of course), and by written and oral
communications about a few species by interested persons. All
such information is properly credited, and doubtful cases allowed
for as far as possible. Reports of additional discoveries will of
course always be gratefully received, and utilized if this catalogue
should ever be revised.

The following bibliography includes several different kinds of
publications, as follows:

1. General works, giving the distribution or uses of the
woody plants of the southeastern United States, or some larger
area.

2. Works similar in scope to this on other states, which have
been taken as models in some respects.

3. Pamphlets or papers dealing with the classification or util-
ization of certain genera or species represented in our list.

4. Papers dealing specifically with Alabama trees or shrubs.

Completeness is not attempted in either of these groups. The
aim has been to cite only works that are important or easily acces-
sible, or both, with an occasional exception in favor of some rare
one that has been overlooked by many bibliographers. ‘Those in
the first and third classes are mostly government bulletins, partly
because the U. S. Forest Service kas published more information
on the utilization of our trees than any other organization in this
country, and partly because government bulletins are printed in
large editions, and easily found in libraries if not still available
for free distribution. Some papers in the third class, which deal
with only one species, are referred to at the proper place in the
catalogue instead of being listed in this bibliography. In the last
class it has not seemed worth while to repeat all the titles given
in Economic Botany Part 1 (Monograph 8), for that is still avail-
able for distribution, and even after the reserve stock is exhausted
it ought to be found in nearly every library that contains this re-
port. In all there are about 139 titles by 80 authors.

INTRODUCTION 1

w

All four classes are put in a single list, with the names of
authors arranged alphabetically, and the works of each (if more
than one) chronologically. In many cases, especially where the
title itself is not sufficiently clear, enough explanatory notes are
added to indicate the relation of the paper to the subject under
discussion, or to guide the reader to additional sources of infor-
mation. Many of the papers are referred to farther on in the
catalogue, by author and number (e.g., Beadle 3, Mohr 5). The
abbreviations of names of states, serials, etc., probably need no
explanation.

Andrews (Miss) E. F. ;

1. Agency of fire in propagation of long-leaf pines ——Bot. Gaz. 64 :497-
508; figs. 1-5. Dec. 1917.

2. The relation between age and area in the distribution of plants.—
Science 11.47 :142-143. Feb. 8, 1918.

(Refers to the rapid spread of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera Ja-
ponica) in the southeastern states.)

3. The Japanese honeysuckle in the eastern United States—Torreya
19 :37-43. 1919.

Ashe, W. W.

1. Chestnut in Tennessee—Tenn. Geol. Surv., Bull. 10 B. 35 pp. 1912.

2. Yellow poplar [Liriodendron] in Tennessee.—Tenn. Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 10 C. 56 pp., 8 half-tones in text. 1913.

3. Loblolly or North Carolina pine [Pinus Taeda]—N. C. Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 24. 169 pp., 2 maps in text, 27 plates. 1915.

4. Magnolia cordata and other woody plants—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
54 :579-582. 1927.

(See also Foster & Ashe, Greeley & Ashe, Pinchot & Ashe.)

Bailey, L. H.

1. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture—Quarto, 4 vols., 1900-1902.

2. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture—6 vols., 1914-1917. (Re-
vised 1922.)

(These two works are useful for indicating which of our woody plants
are cultivated for ornament, etc.)

Bates, F. A. (M. D.)

Indigenous botany of Perry County——Proc. Med. Assoc. State of Ala..
6 :58-68. 1853.

(Medicinal plants mostly. Includes some cultivated species, and a few
whose occurrence in Perry County is very improbable.)

Beadle, C. D.
1. Studies of Crataegus.—Botanical Gazette, 28:405-417. “Dec. 1899.”
(Describes seven new species, all but one credited to Alabama, but none
confined to the state.)
2. Studies in Crataegus. II.—Bot. Gaz. 3:355-346. Nov. 1900.
(Describes ten species, all new, seven known only from Alabama, and
two from Alabama and other states.)

14 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. New species oi thorns [Crataegus] from the southeastern states.—
Biltmore Botanical Studies, 1:25-47. 1901.

(Describes 21 species, 10 of them from Alabama.)

4. A shrubby oak of the southern Alleghanies.—Biltmore Bot. Studies,
1:47-48. 1901.
(Quercus Boyntoni, from the south end of Lookout Mountain.)
5. New species of thorns [Craetaegus] from the southeastern states.
II.—Biltmore Bot. Studies, 1:51-137. 1902.

(Describes 105 species, 31 of them from Alabama.)

6. Two drupaceous trees from Alabama.—Baltimore Bot. Studies,
1:162-163. 1902.

(Prunus australis, from Evergreen, and P. mitis, from Auburn; both
proposed as new species.)

Betts, H. S.
Properties and uses of the southern pines—U. S. Forest Service, Cir-
cular 164. 30 pp., 6 text-figs. 1909.

Boynton, C. L.

Notes from a collector’s field-book—Biltmore Bot. Studies, 1:143-150.
1902.

(Records Ulimus serotina, Hicoria Carolinae-septentrionalis and Acer
leucoderme {from new Alabama stations, among other things.)

Brush, Warren D.

1. Utilization of sycamore.—U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Bull. 884. 24 pp.,
3 text-figs., 4 plates. 1920.

2. Utilization of black walnut—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 909. 89 pp.,
14 plates, several maps, etc., in text. 1921.

(A pretty comprehensive report on the walnut timber resources of the
eastern United States.)

3. Utilization of basswood—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 1007. 64 pp.,
8 plates. 1922.

Buckley, S. B.

1. Quercus Durandii, Buckley—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 121-122.
1881. (This species discovered in Wilcox County, Ala., in 1859.)

2. Rhus cotinoides, Nutt.—Ibid. 1881:125. 1882.

Bush, B. F.

The glabrate species of Tilia—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 54:231-248.
March 1927... }

(Lists 11 species and several varieties, about half of them credited to
Alabama. )

Cabell, P. H. (M. D.)

Report on the botany of Dallas County—Trans. Med. Assoc. Ala.,
8 :40-53. 1855.

(Medicinal plants only. Species not always specified. )

Caldwell, [G. W.] (“Caldwell the Woodsman’’)

The story of the southern evergreens—Country Life in America,
7:171-176. (Illustrated.) Dec. 1904.

(Describes the development of the evergreen decoration industry in
Conecuh County since it was started by the author in 1888.)

Cary, C. A., Miller, E. R., & Johnstone, G. R.
Poisonous plants of Alabama.—Ala. Polytech. Inst. Extension Service,
Circ. 71, 42 pp., 40 figs. 1924.
(Lists 4 trees, 14 shrubs and vines, and 41 herbs. Of the total number
[59], 35 are native, 21 weeds, and 3 cultivated. ).

INE RO DWC TION 15

Chesnut, V. K. ;
Principal poisonous plants of the United States—U. S$. Dept. Agric.,
Diy. Botany, Bull. 20. 60 pp. 1898.

Chittenden, A. K., & Hatt, W. K.
The red gum [Liquidambar|.—U. $. Bur. Forestry, Bull. 58. 56 pp.,
7 text-figs., folded map, and 6 plates. 1905.

Clanton, S. W. (M. LD.)

Report on the botany of Sumter County.—Trans. Med. Assoc. Ala.
8 :32-40. 1855.

(Medicinal plants only. Includes a few cultivated species, and a few
wrongly identified.)

Cocks, R. S.

Catalogue of trees growing naturally in the vicinity of Sardis, Dallas
County, Alabama.—Jour. Arnold Arboretum, 6:189-195. “Oct. 1925.”

(Lists 116 species and 14 varieties, forms and hybrids from an area of
a few hundred acres bordering the Alabama River, but includes a few
species probably introduced, and one or two which could hardly be expected
in that part of the state. Of the forms listed about 70 could be called
large trees, 47 small trees, and 13 shrubs.)

Cuno, John B.
Utilization of dogwood and persimmon.—vU. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 1436.
42 pp., 24 figs. “Sept.” 1926.

Denny, A[ndrew], (M. D.)

Report on the indigenous botany of Clarke County—Proc. Med. Assoc.
Ala., 5:41-69. 1852; (Same) 6:30-22. 1853.

(Restricted to medicinal plants, of which about 85 species are listed,
with notes on habitat, time of flowering, medicinal properties, etc. The
second paper, with the same title, consists mostly of corrections for the
first. )

Earle, F. S.

The flora of the metamorphic region of Alabama.—Ala. Agric. Exper.
Sta., Bull. 119. 80 pp. Auburn, 1902.

Fernow, B. E.
Southern pine—mechanical and physical properties—U. S. Div. For-
estry, Circular 12. Quarto, 12 pp., 4 diagrams. 1896.

Fletcher, W. F.
The native persimmon.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bulletin 685. 25
De laabias: | al9nS:

Foster, H. D., & Ashe, W. W.
Chestnut oak in the southern Appalachians.—U. S. Forest Service, Cir-
cular 135. 23 pp. 1908.

Frothingham, E. H.
The eastern hemlock [Tsuga Canadensis]|—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull
152) 843) pps 3) tes: )) plates.) 1915:

Grant, C. V. & Hansen, A. A.
Poison ivy and poison sumac and their eradication—U. S. Dept. Agric.,
Farmers’ Bull. 1166. 16 pp., 6 figs. Oct. 1920. (Reprinted Jan. 1922.)

16 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Gray, Asa.

Neviusia, a new genus of Rosaceae——Mem. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci., II.
6 :373-376, pl. 30. 1859. (Discovered near Tuscaloosa by Drs. R. D. Nevius
and W. S. Wyman in 1857. For further details see catalogue.)

Greeley, W. B., & Ashe, W. W.
White oak in the southern Appalachians.—U. S. Forest Service, Circu-
lar 105, 27 pp. 1907.

Greene, E. L.
Segregates of the genus Rhus.
Nov. 1905.

Hall, W. L., & Maxwell, H.
1. Uses of commercial woods of the United States. I. Cedars, cy-

presses and sequoias.—U. S. Forest Service, Bull. 95. 62 pp. 1911.
2. (Do.) II. Pines—Bull. 99. 96 pp. 1911.

Harbison, T. G.
A sketch of the Sand Mountain flora——Builtmore Bot. Studies, 1:151-
L5yen 1OO2:

Hare, H. A., Caspari, C. E., & Rushby, H. H.
National Standard Dispensatory.—viii + 1860 pp. Philadelphia, 1905.
(Discusses the properties, etc., of all plants commonly used in a medi-
cinal way in this country.)

Harper, R. M.

1. Taxodium distichum and related species, with notes on some geologi-
cal factors influencing their distribution —Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 29 :383-
399. June, 1902.

(Based mostly on observations in Georgia.)

2. Further cbservations on Taxodium.—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32:
105-115, figs. 1-7. 1905.

(Presents additional evidence of the distinctness of 7. distichum and
T. imbricarium.)

3. A December ramble in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama.—Plant World,
9:102, 104-107. 1906.

(Discusses some interesting plants seen along the shale cliffs of the
Warrior River.)

4. Notes on the distribution of some Alabama plants.—Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 33 :523-536. 1906.

5. The vegetation of Bald Knob, Elmore County, Alabama.—Plant
World 9 :265-269, fig. 44. 1907.

6. Competition between two oaks.—Plant World 10:114-117, figs. 20,
2 OA

(Quercus Phellos and Q. laurifolia, on the University campus.)

Leaflets Bot. Obs. & Crit. 1:114-144.

7. A botanical and geological trip on the Warrior and ‘Tombigbee
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 37:107-

Rivers in the coastal plain of Alabama.
126, figs. 1, 2. 1910.

8. A few more pioneer plants found in the metamorphic region of
Alabama and Georgia—Torreya 10:217-222, fig. 1. 1910.

(Reports a few species from the Blue Ridge in Clay County which
were previously known only from the coastal plain.)

. The diverse habitats of the eastern red cedar and their interpreta-
tion.—Torreya, 12:145-154. July, 1912.

INTRODUCTION 17

10. Five hundred miles through the Appalachian Valley [in Virginia,
Tennessee and Alabama]—Torreya, 13:241-245. Oct. 1913.

11. The forest resources of Alabama—American Forestry, 19 :657-670,
with regional map and 17 hali-tones. Oct. 1913.

(This is an abstract of Monograph 8, with some of the same illustra-
tions and a little new matter, especially about the relation of long-leat
pine to fire.) : ;

12. The pocosin of Pike County, Alabama, and its bearing on cer-
tain problems of succession——Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 41:209-220. 1914.

(Contains among other things the first photograph ever published of
what is now believed to be Quercus Arkansana.)

13. The coniferous forests of eastern North America.—Pop. Sci.
Monthly, 85:338-361, with 16 half-tones. Oct. 1914.

(Forests discussed by species. Contains three Alabama views.)

14. A forest census of Alabama by geographical divisions.—Proc. Soc.
Am. Foresters, 11:208-214. “April” [June], 1916.

15. A preliminary soil census of Alabama and West Florida.—Soil
Science, 4:91-107, fig. 1 (regional map). Aug. 1917.

16. The supposed southern limit of the eastern hemlock.—Torreya,
19 :198-199. Oct. 1919. (Locality in Jefferson County, Ala.)

17. The limestone prairies of Wilcox County, Alabama.—Ecology,
1:198-203, figs. 1, 2. 1920.

18. Alabama trees—In Thomas M. Owen’s “History of Alabama and
dictionary of Alabama biography”, vol. 1, pp. 606-608. Chicago, 1921.

(An annotated list of 83 of the more important species.)

19. A botanical bonanza in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama.—Jour. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc., 37:153-160, pl. 28. [April] 1922.

20. Some recent extensions of the known range of Pinus palustris.—
Torreya, 23:49-51. June, 1923.

(Mentions its occurrence in Fayette County.)

21. A new heart-leaf and other interesting plants from Autauga
County, Alabama.—Torreya, 24:77-83. Oct. 1924.

22. (Description of the natural features of Alabama.)—In “Natural-
ists’ Guide to the Americas” (prepared by the Ecological Society of Ameri-
ca), pp. 446-453. Baltimore, [March] 1926.

(Marred by numerous editorial alterations and typographical errors, and
therefore not to be taken literally.)

Harris, J. T., & Maxwell, H.
The wood-using industries of Alabama.—Lumber Trade Journal (New
Orleans), 61 (no. 9): 19-30. May 1, 1912.

Hatch, Charles F.
Manufacture and utilization of hickory, 1911—U. S. Forest Service,
Circular 187. 16 pp. 1911.

Hatch, Thos. P.

Floral calendar, for part of 1855, in Lauderdale County, Ala—Am.
Jour. Sci., 71:297-299. 1856.

(Relates to the vicinity of LaGrange College, which was on Little
Mountain, in what is now Colbert County.)

Henkel, Alice.
Wild medicinal plants of the United States—U. S. Dept. Agric. Bur.
Plant Industry, Bull. 89. 76 pp. 1906.

18 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

) > 60) Rat Om Be
Wooa paving in the United States—U. S. Forest Service, Circular 141.
24 pp., 3 figs. 1908.

Holroyd, H. B.
The utilization of tupelo [Nyssa uniflora]—U. S. Forest Service, Cir-
cular 40. 16 pp., 4 figs. 1907.

Hopkins, A. D.

The dying of pine in the southern states: cause, extent, and remedy.—
U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bull. 476. 15 pp., 4 figs. 1911.

(Discusses injury by bark-boring beetles.)

Jenkins, L. W. (M. D.)

Report on the botany of Wilcox County.—Trans. Med. Assoc. Ala.,
7:111-116. 1854.

(Only 12 species listed, all medicinal, some woody.)

Kellogg, R. S.
Lumber and its uses. 3d edition, revised by Franklin H. Smith.—370
pp., 98 figs. New York, 1924.

Leavenworth, M. C.
List of the rare plants found in Alabama.—Am. Jour. Sci., 9:74. 1825.
(A list of 34 species, with localities given for most of them in one or
two words.)

McAtee, W. L.
An account of poison sumachs, Rhus poisoning, and remedies therefor.
—Medical Record (New York), 97:771-780. May, 1920.

Marsh, C. D.

A new sheep-poisoning plant of the southern states.—U. S. Dept. Agric.,
Circular 82. 4 pp. 1920.

(Refers to Daubentonia longifolia, a large woody herby or short-lived
shrub, probably introduced from the tropics, and now common near the
coast from West Florida to Texas.)

Mattoon, W. R.

1. The southern cypress—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 272. 74 pp., 7
figs., 12 plates. 1915. (Reviewed by B. E. F. [ernow] in Forestry Quar-
terly, 13:522-524 Jan. 1916.)

(The author treats our two easily recognized species of Taxodium as
one, and makes no reference to publications of the present writer, in which
the differences were pointed out more than ten years previously—See Har-
per 1 and 2 in this bibliography. )

2. Short-leaf pine [Pinus echinata|]: its economic importance and for-
est management.—U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Bull. 308. pp pp., 4 figs., 10
plates. 1915.

3. Slash pine [Pinus Elliottii and P. Caribaea]—U. S. Dept. Agric.,
Farmers’ Bull. 1256. 41 pp., 21 figs. “May” 1922.

4. Long-leaf pine [Pinus palustris, or australis] —U. S. Dept. Agric.,
Bull. 1061. 50 pp., 6 figs., 22 plates. 1922.

Maxwell, Hu.

Uses of commercial woods of the United States. Beech, birches and
maples.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 12. 56 pp. 1913.

(See also Hall & Maxwell, Harris & Maxwell.)

INTRODUCTION 19

Mohr, Charles.

ig The torests of Alabama and their products.—Berney’s Handbook of
Alabama, pp. 221-235. 1878. (Abstracted in Gardeners’ Chronicle [London|
Il. 11:604. May 10, 1879; and in Just’s Bot. Jahresbericht 18787 :1041-1043.
1882.)

Ls)

Rhus cotinoides, Nutt—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1882 :217-220.
Oct. 1882 (A German abstract, with the same title, appeared in the Phar-
maceutische Rundschau, 1:6 Jan. 1883; and a shorter one in Just’s Bot.
Jahresbericht 1882°:409-410. 1885.)

3. On the distribution of the more important forest trees in the Gulf
region —Am. Jour. Forestry (Cincinnati) 1:78-81, 120-126, 179-184, 200-216.
Nov. 1882-Feb. 1883.

4. On Quercus Durandii, Buckley—Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
1883 :37-38. March, 1883. (Also in German in Pharm. Rundsch. 1 :136.
July, 1883; and abstracted in Just’s Bot. Jahresb. 1883*:211. 1886.)

5. Ueber die Verbreitung der Terpentin liefernden Pinusarten im Suden
der Vereinigten Staaten und uber die Gewinnung und Verarbeitung des
Terpentin—Pharm. Rundsch. 2:163-166, 187-190. Aug. & Sept., 1884.

6. Rare and little known trees and shrubs of Alabama. [Rhus coti-
noides, Neviusia Alabamensis, and Croton Alabamensis|]—Trans. Miss. Val-
ley Hort. Soc., 2:216-219. 1884 (?). (Also in German in Pharm. Rundsch.
5:8-11 [with a figure of the Croton]. Jan. 1887; and abstracted in Die Natur
36 :82-83. Feb. 12, 1887.)

7. Untersuchung der Blatter von Gleditschia triacanthos, [.—Pharm.
Rundsch. 5:250. Nov. 1887.

8. The long-leaved pine—Garden & Forest, 1:261-262. July 25, 1888.

9. The la[te]st addition to the shrubs of eastern North America.
[Croton Alabamensis]—Garden & Forest, 2:592, fig. 150. Dec. 11, 1889.

10. Pinus glabra—Garden & Forest, 3:295. June 18, 1890. (Re-
printed in The Garden [London] 38:20. July 5, 1890; and translated into
German by the author in Pharm. Rundsch. 8: 208-209. ‘Sept. 1890.)

11. The Florida spruce pine [Pinus clausa]—Garden & Forest 3:402-
403. Aug. 20, 1890.

12. The medicinal plants of Alabama. Systematic list of the medicinal
plants occurring within the limits of the state, with notes on their distribu-
tion and proper time of collecting the parts used—8vo pamphlet, 17 pp. and
cover. Mobile [1890]. (Said by Owen to be reprinted from the Proc. Ala.
State Pharm. Assoc. Also in German in Pharm. Rundsch. 8 :240-243,
257-262. Oct. & Nov., 1890.)

Lists 112 herbs (including a few introduced and cultivated species), 18
shrubs, 4 vines, and 25 trees.

13. Variations in the leaves of Clematis reticulata and other notes.—
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 19:308-309, pl. 133. Oct. 1892. (Abstracted in
Just’s Bot. Jahresb. 1892*:365; 1893°:269.)

(The “other notes” are on the discovery of Quercus heterophylla in
Morgan County by Mohr and Sudworth.)

14. The mountain flora of Alabama|—Garden & Forest, 5:507-508.
Oct. 26, 1892. (Also a German version in Pharm. Rundsch. 10 :253-256.
Nov. 1892.)

15.. The distribution of some forest trees in the southern states.—Gar-
den & Forest 6:372-373. Sept. 6, 1893.

(Discusses Juniperus: Virginiana, Arundinaria. macrosperma, Hicoria
myristicaeformis, H. Pecan, and Quercus Durandii.)

16. Die Walder des stidlichen Alabama.—Pharm. Rundsch. 12:211-213.
Sept. 1894.

20 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

17. Ueber das Vorkommen des Balsams yon Liquidambar Styraciflua
L.—Pharm. Rundsch. 13:57-58. March, 1895. (Abstractéd in Just’s Bot.
Jahresb. 23 [1895]*:387. 1898.)

18. The timber pines of the southern United States. (With an intro-
duction by B. E. Fernow, and a discussion of the structure of their wood
by Filbert Roth.) —U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Forestry, Bull. 13. Quarto,
160 pp., 18 figs., 27 plates. 1895. (Revised the following year, with same
illustrations, and additional notes on Pinus heterophylla and P. serotina by
Dr. Roth, making 176 pages in all.) (First edition reviewed in Am. Jour.
Pharm. 68:689-670. Dec. 1896; and abstracted in Just’s Bot. Jahresb.
24[1896]° :326, 480, 489-490. 1899; and in Bot. Centralblatt 70:288; and sec-
ond noticed in Just 26°:124, and Exp. Sta. Record 8:602-603. 1897.)

19. Notes on some undescribed and little known plants of the Alabama
flora—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 24:19-28, pl. 289-291. Jan. 1897. (Abstract
in Just’s Bot. Jahresb. 25°:209. 1900.)

(Contains the original description of Vaccinium stamineum melanocar-
pum [p. 25], among other things.)

20. Report on the forests of Sand Mountain—vThe Forester 4:211-215.
Oct. 1898.

21. Notes on some new and little known plants of the Alabama flora.
—Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 26:118-121. March, 1899. (Abstract in Just’s
Bot. Jahresb. 27° :374. )

(Contains the original description of Prunus Alabamensis, among other
things. )

22. Plant Life of Alabama.—Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herbarium, vol. 6.
921 pp., 13 plates (colored regional map and 12 line-drawings of new or rare
plants). July 31, 1901. Also issued by the Geological Survey of Alabama,
with the addition of a biographical sketch of the author (by Dr. E. A.
Smith), and portraits of him and Judge T. M. Peters, in October, 1901.
(Reviewed in Pharmaceutical Review [formerly Pharmaceutische Rund-
schau] 20:85-86. Feb. 1902.)

23. Notes on the red cedar.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Forestry, Bull.
139.57. Ppaelo tes. .o plates. L901:

Nellis, J. C.
Lumber used in the manufacture of wooden products.—U. S. Dept.
Agric., Bull. 605. 18 pp. 1918.

Palmer, E. J.

Is Quercus Arkansana a hybrid?—Jour. Arnold Arboretum, 6:195-200.
1925.

(Answers the question in the negative, and mentions the occurrence
of this species in Pike County, Ala.)

Pinchot, Gifford, & Ashe, W. W.

Timber trees and forests of North Carolina —N. C. Geol. Sury., Bull.
6. 227 pp., 23 plates, and many small distribution maps in text. “1897”
[1898].

(One of the best of the state tree catalogues. )

Pollard, C. L.
A visit to the home of Neviusia—Plant World 3:136-137. 1900.

Porcher, F. P.

Resources of the southern fields and forests.
Ed. 2. xv, 733 pp. Charleston, S. C., 1863 and 1869.

(Contains valuable notes on medicinal and other useful plants.)

Power, F. B., & Chesnut, V. K.
Ilex yomitoria as a native source of caffeine—Jour. Am. Chemical
Sor.. 41 :1307-1312. Aug. 1919.

Ed. 1, xxv, 601 pp:

INTRODUCTION 21

Prentiss, A. N.
The hemlock.—Garden & Forest, 3:157-158. 1890.

Rehder, Alfred (See Wilson & Rehder).

Roth, Filibert. (See also Mohr, 18.)
Progress in timber physics. Bald cypress (Taxodium distichum).—
U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Forestry, Circ. 19. Quarto, 24 pp., 1 fig. 1898.
(The material was collected by Dr. Charles Mohr, and tested at St.
Louis by Prof. J. B. Johnson. Our two species of cypress were treated as
one, as was customary in those days.)

Sargent, C. S.
1. Notes on North American trees. I. Quercus.—Bot. Gaz. 65 :423-459.

1918. (Gives new names to a few species occurring in Alabama.)

2. (Do.) III. Tilia—Bot. Gaz. 66 :421-438, 494-511. 1918.
(Proposes several new species, varieties and forms, some of them from
Alabama. )

St. John, Harold.
A critical revision of Hydrangea arborescens.—Rhodora, 23:203-208.
“Sept. 1921.2 [jan. 1922-]

Schwarz, G. F.

The long-leaf pine in virgin forest—l6mo., xii + 135 pp., 23 full-page
half-tone figures in text, colored map, and 2 folded diagrams. New York,
(May) 1907.

(Based partly on studies made in Baldwin County, Ala.)

Smith, S. P. (M. D.) [Father of Eugene A. Smith.]

Report on the indigenous botany of Prattville—Proc. Med. Assoc. Ala.,
5:77-83. 1852.

(Medicinal plants only, about 33 species, with notes on habitat, medi-
cinal properties, etc.)

Snow, Charles H.

1. The principal species of wood; their characteristic properties.—
203 pp., 39 plates. New York, 1903.

2. Wood and other organice structural materials——xviii + 478 pp. New
York, 1917.

(Discusses the properties of many of our common trees.)

Stelle, (Prof.) J. P.

An outline expose of the geological, agricultural, hygienic, and other
interesting characteristics of Mobile County, Alabama. 26 pp. Mobile,
1888. (For complete title see Monograph 8, p. 14.)

(Contains among other things valuable notes on the uses of various trees
and shrubs. )

Sterrett, W. D.

1. Scrub pine (Pinus Virginiana).—U. §S. Forest Service Bull. 94.
27 pp., 1 plate: 1911:

2. Forest management of loblolly pine [Pinus Taeda] in Delaware,
Maryland, and Virginia.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 11. 191

3. The ashes [Frarinus]: their characteristics and management.—U. §S.
Dept. Agric., Bull. 299. 88 pp., 16 plates, including folded map. 1915.

4. Utilization of ash [Frarinus]—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 523. 52
pp., 10 plates. 1917.

22 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Suaworth, Geo. B.

1. Check list of the forest trees of the United States, their names and
ranges.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Forestry, Bull. 17. 144 pp. 1898.

2. (Second edition, w ia same title.) —U. S. Dept. Agric., Misc. Circe.
92. 295 pp. (Maye), 1927.

Surface, H. E. & Cooper, R. E.
Suitability of long-leaf pine for paper pulp.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull.
72. 26 pp. 1914.

True, Rodney H.
Notes on the early history of the pecan in America.—Smithsoniap Re-
port 1917 :435-448. 1919.

Von Schrenk, Hermann.
Sap-rot and other diseases of the red gum [Liquidambar].—U. S$. Bur.
Plant Industry, Bull. 114. 37 pp., 8 plates. 1907.

Wells, S. D., & Rue, J. D.
The suitability of American woods for paper pulp.—U. $. Dept. Agric.,
Bull. 1485. 101 pp. May, 1927.

Wheeler, Alvin S.

Juglone—Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 35:49-54, pl. 18. (Nov.?)
1919.

(A chemical study of dyestuffs obtained from walnut hulls—species not
specified, but presumably Juglans nigra.)

White, L. L.
Production of red cedar for pencil wood.—U. S. Forest Service, Circu-
lar 102. 19 pp. 1907.

*
Wight, W. F.
a The varieties of plums derived from native American species.—
U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 172. 44 pp. 1915.
2. Native American species of Prunus.—U. S. Dept. Agric., Bull. 179.
75 pp., 4 figs., 13 plates. 1915.

Williamson, A. W.
Cottonwood [Populus deltoides|] in the Mississippi Valley—U. S. Dept.
Agric., Bull. 24. 62 pp., 6 plates. 1913.

Wilson, E. H., & Rehder, Alfred.

A monograph of Azaleas. Rhododendron subgenus Anthodendron.—
Arnold Arboretum, Publ. no. 9. vii—219 pp. April, 1921. (The North
American species treated by Rehder, pp. 107-170. Includes several from
Alabama. )

Wolf, W.

Quercus Bernardiensis sp. nov.—Torreya 18:161-162. 1918.

(From Cullman County, Ala. The author later decided that it was
only a hybrid between O. montana and OQ. stellata.)

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

Before writing about plants at all it is necessary to give them
names ; and as it is obviously impossible to have a different name
for every individual plant (as we have for human beings), it long
ago became customary to use the same name for all individuals
which appear essentially alike. Although no two trees are exactly
alike (as if cast in the same mold), there is not an infinite variety,
as there appears to be among clouds, pebbles on the seashore, etc.
Generally speaking, all trees (and other organisms) are grouped
into categories which we call species, and all the individuals of the
same species resemble each other more than they do those in any
other species (after making allowance for different stages of
growth, abnormalities, etc.) Within a species there are sometimes
minor groups called varieties or forms; and the species are assem-
bled for convenience into larger groups which we call genera, the
genera into families, the families into orders, etc. For example,
the red oaks and white oaks belong to the same genus, the oaks
and chestnuts to the same family, and so on.

Before the principles of taxonomy were well understood, it
was a common belief that all individuals of the same species were
descended from similar ancestors, and that all species were
created simultaneously at the beginning of time. According to this
view there could be no relationship between different species, and
genera, families, etc., were merely arbitrary groups. It is much
more logical, however, to assume that the degree of resemblance
indicates the degree of relationship, though direct proof is difficult
if not impossible. Whether this is true or not, it is no longer pos-
sible to maintain that species are fixed and definite. They are
simply categories, or pigeonholes, established for convenience, and
no two authorities agree exactly on the classification of a large
number of organisms, either as to species or genera.

As the sum of scientific knowledge about the vegetable king-
dom increases from day to day, and is recorded in print, it 1s in-
evitable that more and more differences between plants previously
thought alike should be discovered, and the number of recognized
genera, species, varieties, etc. increased. Not only are unsuspected
differences of long standing continually brought to light, but the
plants themselves may change from one generation to another

24 BCONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

almost under our eyes. This is easily demonstrated in the case of
cultivated plants, and it is undoubtedly taking place in wild plants,
(as shown by fossil remains ), though much more slowly.

When what was universally regarded as a single species with
pretty definite characters is divided into two or more, the change
is often resented by botanists who are not taxonomists, and still
more by persons who are not botanists but have to deal with the
plants in question in one way or another (e.g., lumbermen and
farmers ), for it requires readjusting ideas and learning new names.
But it would be absurd to say that no more changes of this sort
should be tolerated hereafter, for we cannot afford to stop in our
tracks and shut our eyes to new discoveries. At the same time the
process of splitting species seems to have already been carried
beyond all reasonable limits in some groups of plants by specialists
who make that their chief occupation, and would be out of employ-
ment and soon forgotten if they did not occasionally break into
the number of per-

print that way. Fortunately—one might say
sons thus engaged is smaller in proportion to the total number of
botanists now than it was ageneration or two ago,* and the splitting
process has not been carried as far with trees and shrubs—except
in a few genera—as it has with ferns and grasses, or with birds
and mammals in the animal kingdom.

A certain amount of this sort of work is necessary, or at
least desirable; and newly discovered differences which may seem
at first to be slight and unimportant may turn out to be very sig-
nificant. ‘lo take a hypothetical example, it might be found that
all the specimens of a certain shrub east of a certain meridian
yielded poisonous honey, while those farther west, separated by a
few hundred miles, perhaps, and distinguishable at sight only by
blooming a couple of weeks earlier, or having a few more stamens
in the flowers, might have no such properties. Or we may take
some more specific cases. A century ago it was commonly believed
that our pines which yield turpentine in large quantities were all
one species, and they are still so treated by some geologists and
soil surveyors; and our cypresses likewise. But it is now well
known that the slash pine prefers wetter soils than the long-leaf,
and has different bark, leaves and cones, produces seed oftener,

*See A. S. Hitchcock, Science I1.67 :431-432. April 27, 1928.

bo
wat

INTRODUCTION

etc. Likewise our river and pond cypresses differ in their knees,
bark, leaves, power of resistance to fire, relation to seasonal fluc-
tuation of water, and especially in geographical distribution ; and
to call them all one species, (as some “authorities” who have gone
to extremes in splitting other genera have done until quite recently )
would be to shut our eyes to some very obvious and significant
facts.

In this catalogue a rather conservative (and pragmatic) course
with regard to species and genera has been followed, for it seems
more desirable to spare the ‘Iay” reader mental exertion and at the
same time to keep the expense of printing, storage and mailing
within reasonable limits than to list as many species as possible
merely in order to make Alabama’s list longer than that for some
other state. In some of our genera of woody plants the species
have lately been so finely divided by specialists that only an expert
can distinguish them, and then perhaps only by having leaves,
flowers and fruit taken from the same tree at different seasons.
(See remarks under Juniperus, Crataegus and Tilia in the cata-
logue).

NOMENCLATURE.

Another question closely connected with classification, but not
quite the same, is nomenclature. Every plant that is known to
scientists has a scientific or technical name, which is usually Latin
in form if not in derivation. "These are more or less objectionable
to the layman, but are necessary for the sake of definiteness.
Many plants are so small or rare or unimportant that persons other
than botanists have never had occasion to give them names (as 1s
true also of the vast majority of shells and insects) ; and what 1s
worse, quite a number of plants which are obviously and unmistak-
ably different go by the same common name in different parts of
the country or even in the same region, which would cause con-
fusion as if they did not have different scientific names. (The
same scientific name has indeed often been given to different
plants through oversight, but such mistakes are always rectified
as soon as possible.) For example, right here in Alabama we have
two short-leaf pines, two cypresses, several red oaks and water
oaks, three or four bays, two tytys, two black gums, etc.

26 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

When a genus or species is divided of course a new name has
to be given to one of the components. The name of a plant may
also be changed without a change in classification, on account of a
new interpretation of an old description, or something of the sort,
and this has caused a great deal of annoyance in recent years.
Half a century ago plant names were determined largely by usage
and authority, like ordinary language; but under this system the
original describer of a plant had no assurance that the name he
gave it would not be displaced by a later one coined by some more
or less eminent ‘‘authority.” About forty years ago a movement
began to establish nomenclature on a permanent basis, by giving
the earliest generic or specific name precedence over all others,
unless there was some very good reason for doing otherwise, such
as the name itself being preoccupied. That resulted in the imme-
diate discarding of innumerable names which had long been in use;
but the reformers tried to assure the multitude of objectors that
everything would be straightened out in a few years, and the
revised names would soon become as familiar as the displaced ones.
This hope has not been fully realized, however, on account of the
frequent discovery of old descriptions in obscure places, correc-
tions of disputed dates of publication, differences of opinion in
interpreting inadequate descriptions, etc., besides the changes
directly and indirectly due to changes of classification. The rules
have been revised at several international botanical congresses, but
complete agreement has not yet been reached. For example, one
faction seeks to retain by special enactment a long list of generic
names which were in use practically throughout the 19th century,
while others want to follow rigid rules and make no exceptions.

As far as nomenclature itself is concerned, this catalogue fol-
lows pretty closely the recent works of Dr. John K. Small, who
has written several floras of the southeastern states and parts
thereof. But a more conservative attitude toward genera and
species necessitates the use of names different from those in his
books in some cases. However, where different names are used in
different books, both are given here, to make it as convenient as
possible for the reader. In dealing with trees the 1922 edition of
Sargent’s Manual of the T'rees of North America and the 1927
edition of Sudworth’s Check List of the Forest Trees of the
United States have been followed as far as possible.

INTRODUCTION 2/7
DEFINITION OF TREE, SHRUB, ETC.

In addition to the specific variations already mentioned, plants
also vary in size from the largest trees to organisms invisible to
the naked eye. In regions colder, drier or hotter than ours it is
often difficult to draw the line between trees, shrubs and herbs;
but in Alabama the problem is relatively simple. However, it is
desirable to state just what is meant by these terms.

Trees can be conveniently divided on the basis of size into two
classes, large and small. The former when mature nearly always
reach up to the top of the forest in which they grow, and have
trunks large enough so that an ordinary board, say a foot wide and
twelve feet long, can be sawn from them. (Hach human genera-
tion, however, sees the average size of trees successively smaller,
on account of the continual cutting of the larger specimens by
lumbermen, and a tree which never exceeds a foot or two in
diameter might have been called a small tree by our grandfathers. )

A small tree generally grows in the shade of other trees (un-
less it is a species that thrives best in sunlight, like the willow),
and is not large enough for lumber, but it should be large enough
to make a fence-post, and have its lowest limbs far enough from
the ground so that-one can walk under them without stooping.
The trunk is usually single and erect, but not necessarily so. A
most typical small tree is the dogwood. Of course either a large
or a small tree when young may look like a shrub; but a person
seeing a totally unfamiliar tree in the juvenile stage can usually
recognize it as such by its erect habit, few branches, absence of
flowers or fruit, and the resemblance of its foliage to that of some
mature trees near by. ‘There are indeed some species of trees which
vary in size all the way from shrub to tree, and in unfavorable soils
or climate may produce flowers and fruit when only a few feet
high. Examples of this in Alabama are the sassafras and white

bay.

A shrub generally has several stems from the same root, or a
single crooked or leaning stem, not large enough for a fence-post,
and seldom more than three inches in diameter.* Shrubs are as a

*Typical large shrubs, which sometimes have stems several inches in
diameter, but branch too close to the ground to be called trees, are Alnus,
Hamamelis and Kalmia.

28 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

rule most abundant in poorer soils; and they usually grow slowly
or are much shorter-lived than trees. It is sometimes convenient to
distinguish between large shrubs, taller than a man, like the alder,
and small ones waist-high or less. This distinction is not important
in Alabama, but it seems to have a real significance in higher
latitudes. For example, in northern Michigan, where the ground
is covered with two or three feet of snow most of the winter,
many of the small shrubs are evergreen, the snow blanket protect-
ing their leaves from freezing in zero weather; while those tall
enough to show above the snow are all deciduous.

A shrub is ordinarily distinguished from an herb by having
woody stems which do not die down to the ground in winter; but
there are some intermediate and anomalous conditions. For ex-
ample, our three palms all have stems which are either under the
ground or elevated only a little above it; but they have large stiff
fan-like evergreen leaves, which offer about the same resistance to
any one passing through the woods as a shrub of the same height
would, and as much concealment for animals, and they are here
classed as shrubs. All the cacti have perennial stems above the
ground, and some of those in the deserts of the Southwest are
large enough to be called trees; but ours are so low and of such
soft texture that they are classed with the herbs. A few creeping
plants, like the Muitchella, have evergreen leaves and perennial
stems above the ground, but they are not woody enough to be
classed as shrubs. (In colder climates there are many low ever-
greens of that nature, sometimes called undershrubs.) Some of
our species of Yucca (all evergreen) have stems several feet tall,
while one has its stem almost entirely underground, but they are all
called shrubs for the sake of completeness, and also on account of
their analogy to the palms.

Many plants which are only weeds with us, in the tropics
where there is no frost to cut them back continue to put out new
leaves from more or less woody stems throughout the year, and
thus might be called shrubs there. But that class is hardly repre-
sented in Alabama, except by the introduced Daubentonia, which
might be called either a large woody herb or a weak short-lived
shrub.

INTRODUCTION 29

Woody vines are fairly distinct in our climate, though there
are a few species which are only occasionally or doubtfully woody,
like Cebatha, and a few which sometimes stand up fairly straight
and sometimes lean or climb on other shrubs, like Sageretia and
some of the roses. Nearly all have very light and porous stems,
which enable some of them to climb tall trees and attain a diameter
of two or three inches without putting an undue strain on the tree.
It happens that nearly all of them grow in places which are pretty
well protected from fire, such as steep. bluffs, hammocks and
swamps.

METHOD OF TREATMENT.

In the following catalogue all the trees, shrubs and vines,
native and introduced, are put in a single list, and arranged in very
nearly the same order as in Mohr’s Plant Life, Small’s Flora, Sud-
worth’s Check List, etc. (the so-called Eichler or Engler & Prantl
system, adopted about forty years ago), beginning with the most
primitive types and ending with those which are thought to be the
most highly specialized. It should be understood, however, that
even if we had all the facts about the ancestry of our plants, their
true relationship can never be shown in a linear sequence, any
more than the counties of the state can be listed in a single column
without separating some that are adjacent. A two-dimensional
arrangement would be more logical, and three perhaps still better.

After the name of each family is a brief statement of the
number of known species and their general distribution and eco-
nomic properties. This is compiled from various sources, and is
included here because most botanical books (including Mohr’s
Plant Life) do not give that sort of information.

The treatment of each species begins with its technical name
(with synonyms if the name has been changed within a generation
or so), and its common name or names, giving preference to those
current in Alabama and adjoining states. In our botanical manuals
many trees and other plants are given alleged common names which
are rarely if ever used by persons not botanists, some of them
indeed arbitrarily bestowed by the botanists themselves. Again,
the same plant may have different common names in the North
and South, and as most of our botanical books are written in the

30 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

North, the northern names are apt to be given preference. A
striking case of this is one of our shrubs, Jlex glabra. It occurs
sparingly near the coast from Nova Scotia to New Jersey, and
abundantly from Virginia to Louisiana. It seems to be called “ink-

‘.

berry” in the North, but invariably “‘gallberry” in the South; and

only the northern name appears in such works as Small’s Flora and
the catalogue part of Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama (which was
edited in Washington). ‘Thus a name which is used perhaps by a
few thousand people is given preference to one used by millions.
In the present work every effort is made to distinguish between
the bona-fide local names and the exotic or fictitious ones, and to
avoid foisting any of the latter on unsuspecting readers ; but it can-
not be claimed that perfection has been attained in this respect.

After the name of a species follows a brief sketch of some of
its salient features, such as size and time of flowering, but no at-
tempt is made to describe any species fully for purposes of identi-
fication, for most of our trees at least are already pretty well
known to the people who live among them, and descriptions of the
less familiar ones can be found in well known botanical works,
such as the southern floras of Chapman and Small. It is the func-
tion of a state survey to indicate the location and approximate
quantity of minerals, water-powers, soils, timber, and other natural
resources, but not to compete with the publishers of text-books by
telling how to mine coal, make iron, build dams, cultivate different
types of soil, or identify minerals, fossils, plants, etc. And indeed
to make this catalogue serve as a manual of identification for the
use of persons wholly ignorant of botany a glossary of botanical
terms would have to be added, as well as keys to the families,
genera and species; and that would be too much to expect in a
work of this kind.

Photographic illustrations of some of the species are pro-
vided, and these may be of some assistance in identification. Un-
fortunately only a few of the species can be thus illustrated, for
most trees grow naturally only in rather dense forests, so that we
cannot do much more than photograph the trunk. Occasionally
such a tree can be found in an old field or on the edge of a
clearing, but in the former case it does not have its normal shape,
and-in the latter it may not stand out sufficiently from its neigh-
bors. And sometimes an opportunity to photograph a fine speci-

INTRODUCTION 31

men is lost on account of weather conditions or some other dif-
ficulty. In a work designed especially for identification purposes
it might be desirable to gather twigs of every species, showing
leaves and flowers or fruit, and photograph them against a suitable
background. ‘That has been done in a few cases, but to do it for
300 species would be a pretty expensive undertaking.

The 66 half-tones (including 11 previously used in Mono-
graph 8) illustrate 33 species of trees and 10 of shrubs, in 22
counties. Those taken by other persons than the writer are prop-
erly credited. All are dated, for plants vary considerably in ap-
pearance in different seasons and different years. In a few cases
two views of the same tree taken at intervals of several years are
presented.

Next the principal economic properties are given, as deter-
mined by observations in the field in this and other states, and
examination of nursery catalogues, dispensatories, government bul-
letins, tree manuals, etc. ‘This indeed might be classed as text-book
matter, and therefore out of place; but the justification for includ-
ing it here is that some of it is new and original, and even the
compiled information is taken from many different sources, and
probably less than half of it could be found in any one existing
work. Even yet it is doubtless far from complete.

Finally the usual habitat of the species is given, and its known
distribution within the state.* The distribution is given in detail
by regions, except in the case of some of the commonest and rarest
species, and sometimes with percentages of abundance. The
regions are numbered to correspond with the first map, as ex-
plained in the next chapter.

For some of the species there are distribution maps, made by
several different methods, but all on the same base as the regional
map. ‘The ranges of species which are very abundant in some
regions and less so in others are indicated by dots varying in den-
sity. These dots do not necessarily indicate known localities, but
are merely a rough way of indicating relative abundance. Where
a species is fairly common in suitable habitats in rather definite
areas, and apparently absent from others, oblique shading is used.

*The type-locality and total range would also be of interest to some
readers, but those points are covered pretty well in Mohr’s Plant Life of
Alabama, and very little could be added now to his information about them.

32 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Where the northern or southern boundary of a range is fairly
definite, and the species extends beyond the limits of the state in
other directions ,a line is used; and this is especially suitable when
two or more species are put on the same map. The distribution of
some species which occur only along streams is shown in solid
black. Two or more related species are sometimes put on the same
map, either by the same method or by different methods.

The majority of our trees and shrubs are either so generally
distributed over the state that a range map for them would not
mean anything (unless we had such detailed information about
them that their relative abundance could be indicated), or else
known from so few localities that a map would have no advantage
over a statement about them in the text. The 18 maps published
herewith show data for 18 species of trees (large or small) and
9 of shrubs.

NATURAL REGIONS, SOIL AND CLIMATE.

The state can be divided for convenience into 15 natural
regions, each differing from adjoining ones in soil or topography
(though the boundaries may not be as sharp as they have to be
shown on the map), and some of them have subdivisions, making
21 divisions in all. ‘The boundaries of the major divisions are in-
dicated by continuous lines, and of the subdivisions by dotted lines.
The names of the regions are given on the first map, but it has not
been thought necessary to include descriptions here, for they have
been pretty fully described in Monograph 8 (Economic Botany of
Alabama, Part 1, 1923) or in Special Report 11 (Resources of
Southern Alabama, 1920). But as the local distribution of species
depends largely if not mostly on soil and climate, some maps illus-
trating these factors are here presented.

The first (Map 2) may be called a soil fertility map. It is
copied as closely as possible from one by Dr. Eugene A. Smith,
published in his “Report of Progress’? for 1881-2 and in the 6th
volume of the Tenth U. S. Census (1884), which shows for all
parts of the state the percent of area which was planted in cotton in
1880. As cotton was then (as now) the state’s most valuable crop,
and the use of commercial fertilizers was then in its infancy, the
distribution of cotton was pretty closely correlated with the natural

INTRODUCTION

= aye ees yet i :
: EG
ia = ve
a “
= eo ce 4

Te

4 ey
oP "5 oe
eee SOM Ts

LY

5.PIE

f 106. RED HILLS \
uf) “11 (EASTERN) j

Sin{ Rein [nm = aE Te

SHOWING NATURAL REGIONS

(HARPER, 1928)

(3. |
RMH 1928 (Ls Eh ee
Map 1. Shows the natural regions referred to throughout the text.

Those whose names are omitted or abbreviated for lack of space are as fol-
lows: 1C. Little Mountain (Hartselle sandstone). 2B. Warrior, Cahaba
and Coosa coal fields. 6A. Central shortleaf pine belt.

6B. Central long-
leaf pine hills. 9. Post-oak flatwoods. 14. Mobile delta.

15. Coast strip.

34 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

,
Nill

el

eet SHOWING PERCENT OF AREA
| PLANTED In corton, 1880 (SMITH)

Jy /ORSIeSe

0-06 01-1 §-5 S-40 60-15 15-20 20+

RMH 1928

Map 2. Soil fertility, indicated by percentage of total area devoted to
cotton in 1880. After Dr. Eugene A. Smith.

INTRODUCTION 35

SHOWING MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE
(DEGREES FAHRENHEIT)

AFTER E. A. SMITH, 1883

RYH 1928

Map 3. Annual isotherms, showing average temperature throughout
the state. After Dr. Eugene A. Smith.

36 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

is

(DEC., JAN., FEB.) IN INCHES
tar weigh AFTER E. A. SMITH, 1883
oe

] SHOWING WINTER RAINFALL

RMH_ 1928

Map 4. Winter rainfall throughout the state. After Dr. Eugene A.
Smith.

INTRODUCTION

a ---------

:
. ; fe = = = = ===
a : :
‘---1---/- : '
' ' ’
" --4 .
’ ' '
” ' ’
‘
+ : ree7,
. : et}
— ee Se Se aaa
'
.
a -
Y

ses Cas Fe

MAP + ALABAMA

SHOWING SUMMER RAINFALL
(JUNE, JULY, AUG.) IN INCHES

AFTER E. A. SMITH, 1883

as
RMH. 1928 :

Map 5. Summer rainfall throughout the state. After Dr. Eugene A.

Smith.

38 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

fertility of the soil.* Although the map is generalized and not abso-
lutely accurate, it would be difficult to improve on it without map-
ping the location of every cotton field, and even that would not
mean much at present, since the use of fertilizers has extended the
cotton area in the poorer regions and the boll weevil has reduced it
in the black belt.

This map shows some striking correlations with the regional
map, and with the distribution of many trees and shrubs, as can be
seen by comparing it with the distribution maps of Pinus palustris,
Tilicium, Cyrilla, Ilex glabra, and Osmanthus. Similar correlations
are mentioned at several places in the text.

The three climatic maps are taken from Dr. Smith’s report
for 1881-2, which deals with the agricultural features of the state.
More accurate ones could be constructed by taking advantage of
the weather records of the last four or five decades, but these
illustrate the general tendencies remarkably well considering their
age, and as the publication in which they originally appeared has
long been out of print, 1t seems desirable to perpetuate them in this
way.

The map showing average annual temperature needs little com-
ment, except to note that temperature is probably a limiting factor
in the case of many species confined to the extreme north or south
of the state. Details for several weather stations can be found in
Monograph 8 (page 188).

The two seasonal precipitation maps are rather significant.
They show the total amount of rain falling in the three winter
months (December to February) and in the three summer months
(June to August). The ratio of winter or summer to annual pre-
cipitation might be better, as suggested in Monograph 8 (pp. 19,
24),7 but it is very interesting to note that the most fertile regions
have the most rain in winter, while the principal long-leaf pine
region has the heaviest summer rain in the western part, and the
least winter rain in the eastern part.

*One important exception to the correlation between cotton and soil fer-
tility is the Mobile delta, which has very fertile soil, but is very little culti-
vated on account of being subject to inundation.

+See also Science II. 48:208-211. Aug. 30, 1918.

SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE.

CONIFERAE (OR PINACEAE). PINE Fairy.

Includes about 33 genera and 250 species, nearly all trees,
widely distributed over the world, and furnishing most of the
lumber used in temperate regions, and various resinous products
Many are cultivated for ornament.

PINUS, L. Tue PINEs.

Pinus palustris, Mill. (P. lutea, Walt.; P. australis, Mx.)
(Map 6 and Figs. 1-3) LONG-LEAF PINE.

A large tree, with the longest leaves and largest cones of any
pine in eastern North America. The largest specimens on record
were about 40 inches in diameter and 100 feet tall; but at the
present time it 1s exceptional for one to escape the lumberman’s
axe long enough to attain a diameter of two feet and a height of
75 feet. It blooms in March and April and ripens its cones in
about a year and a half, but produces good seed only about once
in four or five years.

This species probably has more uses than any other tree in
North America, if not in the whole world; and as it was probably
once the mos; abundant tree in the United States, the exploitation
of its products has furnished the principal source of income for
millions of people at one time or another. Its lumber and naval
stores have been exported to all parts of the civilized world, over a
million dollars’ worth in a year sometimes going out from the port
of Mobile alone.

Of its many economic properties only a few need to be men:
tioned here. It does not thrive in cultivation, but is sometimes left
standing for ornament when a forest of it is converted into a park
or something of the sort. The living tree exhales an aroma which
is claimed to be beneficial for persons with weak lungs. Its wood
is the strongest, heaviest, and most durable of all North American
pines (with the possible exception of its near relative, to be men-
tioned next). Whole trunks are used for piles, foot-logs, and
sometimes (after being creosoted) for poles to carry electric wires.
Long dressed pieces make bridge timbers, columns, masts, spars,

40 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 1. Virgin forest of long-leaf pine about ten miles east of Fair-
hope, Baldwin County. Photographed by Dr. E. A. Smith and R. SY
Hodges, August 13, 1902. These trees were doubtless cut long ago, and it
may never be possible to take such a picture in Alabama again.

CONIFERAE 41

Fic. 2. Looking vertically upward in virgin forest of long-leaf pine in
lime-sink region about two miles northwest of McRae, Covington County,
showing the sparse foliage, which lets plenty of sunlight through to the
forest floor. June 10, 1919.

sills, beams, joists and rafters. Smaller rough, hewed or split
pieces make crossties, fence rails and posts, mine props, log cabins,
cribs, stick chimneys, staves of rosin barrels, and home-made
palings and shingles. Blocks of it about the size of an ordinary
brick, impregnated with creosote—another product of the same
species—have been used extensively in the last twenty years or so
for street paving, at least as far north as New York.

Sawed lumber goes into fences, weatherboards, shingles, floor-
ing, wainscoting, doors, sash and blinds, cars, cotton gins, and
countless other articles. The sawdust is used for packing ice, etc.,
as well as for fuel in the mills which produce it.

Young shoots two or three feet high have been shipped north
from Evergreen and elsewhere for winter decorations. Leafy
twigs of this and other pines are used for stopping the openings in
the bottoms of coal cars when loaded at some of the mines in the

3irmingham district. The dead leaves (‘‘pine straw”) are used
for mulching and bedding, and occasionally for making fancy bas-
kets. They have been used a good deal for surfacing sandy roads,

42 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 3. Long-leaf pine turpentined
by the old “box” method, a few miles
north of Bayou la Batre, Mobile
County, before cups and gutters came
into use. Photographed by Dr. Eu-
gene A. Smith and R. S. Hodges,
July 31, 1902.

especially in Florida before the days of automobiles and asphalt
roads. A fiber extracted from them by a chemical process is
known as pine wool, and is said to have about the same properties
as excelsior.

The resinous nature of the wood adapts it especially for fuel,
torches, and kindling (“lightwood’’). It constitutes the principal
domestic fuel in all the regions where it abounds, and is used a
great deal by electric light and waterworks plants in the smaller
cities in the same regions. It has not been many years since pas-
senger trains in southern Alabama and adjoining states were drawn
by wood-burning locomotives, and many if not most log trains still
are. Long-leaf pine wood has also been used for charcoal, though

CONIFERAE 43

it perhaps has no advantage over many other species for that pur-
pose. Charcoal burning, to furnish fuel for the cooks of Mobile
and New Orleans, was a considerable industry in Mobile County
and adjacent Mississippi two or three generations ago, when there
were few railroads, and the pines remote from navigable waters
were worth nothing for timber, for it would have cost too much to
haul them out. When converted into charcoal, however, the pro-
duct was much lighter and also more valuable, so that the cost of
transportation was not such a limiting factor.

The gum furnishes the so-called ‘‘naval stores,” i.e., turpentine,
rosin, tar, creosote, lampblack, etc., which are important articles of
commerce. It is usually taken from the living tree by chipping off
the bark and a thin layer of sapwood every week or so, going a few
inches higher every year; but similar products are also obtained
by distilling stumps and other dead heartwood. An oil can be
extracted from the leaves too by a process of distillation.

The seeds and seedlings are eaten by hogs, a fact which tends
to retard the reproduction of the tree in free-range territory.

An exhaustive discussion of the properties and uses of this
and several other of our pines can be found in Dr. Mohr’s bulletin
on the Timber pines of the southern states (Mohr 18 in biblio-
graphy). For additional information see Betts, Fernow, Hall &
Maxwell 2, Harper 11, 20, Harris & Maxwell, Hill, Mattoon 4,
Mohr 5, Schwarz, Surface & Cooper.

Distribution. ‘The long-leaf pine grows usually in poor soils,
either sandy or rocky, and rather dry, but not quite the poorest.
There are occasional exceptions, however. In Talladega and per-
haps other counties it can be found in rather rich-looking red clay
soils weathered from limestone, and in the Tallapoosa River and
some of its tributaries it grows on rocks out in the stream (or did
before most of our shoals were flooded for power purposes). It
seems to thrive best in regions which have considerable rain in
summer, a condition best realized in the southern parts of the
state. It withstands fire better than almost any other tree we have,
and occasional fires seem to be essential to its development. For
it seems to germinate only on bare soil, and if there was no more
fire the soil would become covered with pine straw and humus,
and there would apparently be no more pine reproduction, and
hardwood trees of various kinds would take its place, as they have

ad ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Bees

frp ‘
MAP - ALABAMA
SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
Nt AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF
: j LONG-LEAF PINE
RYMH 1928 b te ee

Map 6. Known distribution and approximate relative abundance (orig-
inal rather than present) of Pinus palustris, indicated by dots.

CONIFERAE 45

already done in many hammocks, etc. It is almost impossible to
find a long-leaf pine forest which does not show the marks of
recent fires. Some people are inclined to regard such fires as mere
accidents, which are much more frequent now than they were in
pre-historic times; but the multiplication of fields, roads, ete., cuts
the forests up into small patches, and thus restricts the area over
which a fire started by lightning or any other ntaural cause can
spread; and the frequency of fire at any one point in the pine
woods may be no greater now than it was a thousand years ago.
(This matter is more fully discussed in Monograph 8, and in sev-
eral vegetation studies by the writer in the annual reports of the
Florida Geological Survey. See also Andrews 1 in bibliography. )

This was originally probably the most abundant tree in Ala-
bama, as well as in several other southeastern states; but it has
been so thoroughly exploited by lumbermen in all accessible local-
ities that the present stand may not be over one-tenth of the
original. It occurs in every region in the state except the Barrens,
Tennessee Valley, Mobile delta and perhaps the Coast strip. Its
distribution and relative abundance are shown pretty well on the
accompanying dot map, but some details by regions deserve to be
given also, as follows.

2A. Winston, Blount, and Etowah Counties, rather rare.

2B. Abundant around South Lowell, Walker County, two decaces
and more ago; but a logging railroad has invaded that area since the picture
in Monograph 8 (fig. 14) was taken, and has lately been discontinued, which
probably means that all the pine worth cutting is gone. Scattered in Jeffer-
son and Tuscaloosa Counties; worked for turpentine in the latter about 17
years ago, and soon afterward ruthlessly exploited by sawmills. Common
in the Cahaba coal field, less so in the Coosa.

3. Frequent on the poorer soils in nearly every county, especially chert
ridges. Worked for turpentine in Talladega County a decade or so ago, and
perhaps later.

4. Common on dry sunny slopes, up to 1900 and perhaps even 2000
feet above sea-level (as nearly as can be determined by topographic maps).
Apparently not turpentined in the mountains yet, on account of its scattered
growth and the rough topography. A generation ago there was a large
sawmill at Hollins, and many small mills have nibbled at the pine in this
region since.

5. Common, except in an area of a few hundred square miles around
IaFavette, where the soil appears to be a little too rich for it (and also
forMagnolia glauca, which see).* A little too scattered to be turpentined
profitably, and not being cut for lumber much at present.

6A. Common from Tuscalocsa County southeastward, but never very

abundant. I have seen a few specimens in the southeastern part of Fayette
County.t

*Compare with map 2 herein.
+See Torreya 23:50-51. 1923.

46 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

6B. The dominant tree, originally constituting perhaps half the forest,
but now reduced by logging operations, and clearing the uplands, to 25% or
less. There were several large sawmills in this region 15 years ago, but
apparently only a few small portable mills now remain. Formerly turpen-
tined in Tuscaloosa and Autauga Counties, but that too seems to be almost
at an end. There seems to be very little young growth now.

6C. Rather scarce, and only in eastern half.

7. Not typical of the black belt, but grows in sandy soils in Dallas
County, and also on some clayey soils apparently derived from the Selma
chalk, a few miles southwest of Carlowville.

8. Scattered, from Pike County eastward. The locality near Carlow-
ville, just mentioned, may also belong to this region.

9. Scattered, but between Livingston and York it was abundant enough
to be sawn for lumber about twenty years ago.

10 W. On the Buhrstone mountainst and other poor ridges, and also
in some rather flat low areas, particularly in Butler County. Rarest in
Wilcox (the most fertile county south of the black belt) and apparently
commonest in Butler and Choctaw, where a few large mills are still cut-
ting it.

10 E. Originally common on dry uplands, but now greatly reduced by
the clearing of these uplands for farming purposes. Rare or absent in <
considerable area in Pike County (and there are similar spots in the same
region in Southwest Georgia).

11. Scattered on the poorer soils.

12. The dominant tree, originaily constituting about half the forest,
but now greatly reduced by farming and lumbering. As late as 1919 there
were some magnificent virgin forests in southern Covington County, within
ten miles of the largest sawmill in the state (which is managing its holdings
scientifically), and some of that may be there yet.

13. Originally ubiquitous except in swamps, etc., and constituting about
three-fourths of the forest, but now reduced by lumbering and farming to
little more than sapling thickets. It reproduces itself remarkably well in
this region, though, and will make another good crop of timber if ever given
a chance.

Pinus Elliottii, Engelm. (Formerly confused with P. Cubensis
Griseb. ) SLASH PINE.

(Map 7, Fig. 4)

A tree similar in many ways to the preceding (and often con-
fused with it by geologists and soil mappers), but with a different
bark (almost impossible to describe), usually a straighter trunk,
shorter leaves, and smaller and smoother cones. It blooms about a
month earlier than the long-leaf pine, and makes plenty of seed
every year. It averages a little smaller than its relative, but I have
seen a specimen 40 inches in diameter in the southeastern portion
of Covington County. Its economic properties are much the same
as those of long-leaf, and many of the statements made about the
former will apply to this also.

tSee Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37:124. 1910.

CONIFERAE 47

|

i
\
j
}
j
|
;
it

Fic. 4. Slash pine in damp sandy flats with evergreen bushy under-
growth, about one-half mile south of Orange Beach P. O., Baldwin County,
June 13, 1912.

References :—Mattoon 3, Mohr 18.

Grows normally in shallow ponds, branch-swamps, etc., but
occasionally in old fields and cut-over lands with comparatively
dry soil, a circumstance which led some foresters a generation ago
to believe that it was gradually replacing the long-leaf pine.
Throughout its range it is confined to regions with plenty of rain
in summer, which leaches out the fertility of the soil. Its inland
limit is pretty sharply defined, all the way from South Carolina to
Louisiana. (See map.)

10. Extreme southern part of Butler County, and neighboring parts
of Conecuh and Covington.

12. Common in ponds and branches.

13. Common along branches, etc., and often in clearings.

15. Common or locally abundant in damp sandy flats.

Some of the slash pines along the coast may represent Pinus Caribaea
Morelet, which is abundant in southern Florida—and seems quite distinct
there—and apparently follows the coast to Georgia and Mississippi. It
prefers drier soils than P. Elliottii does, and is much less valuable for
lumber and naval stores.

48 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3 Ve |
he See Nia i aa
MAP - ALABAMA
SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS

AND INLAND LIMIT OF

SLASH PINE

Map 7. Inland limit of Pinus Elliotti.

Pinus Taeda, L. SHort-LeAF PINE. (Loblolly or old field pine
of the books. )

(Figs. 5, 6)

This is the largest of our pines when fully developed, occas-
ionally reaching a diameter of four feet, with the lowest limbs
50 feet from the ground, and a total height of 100 feet or more;
but of course few such specimens have escaped the lumbermen. It
blooms in March and April, and produces plenty of seed every
year.

Its wood is inferior to that of the long-leaf pine in almost
every way, but is used very largely for similar purposes where
long-leaf is scarce or absent; and its rapid growth adapts it well to
silvicultural projects. The wood being lighter and softer than
long-leaf, is better adapted for boxes, crates, etc. In New Orleans
and doubtless elsewhere it is made into excelsior. It is not very
durable, but in recent years has been used a good deal for cross-
ties and telegraph poles, after being impregnated with creosote.
When it grows in or near long-leaf pine turpentine orchards it is
sometimes chipped like the long-leaf, but probably with indifferent
results.

CONIFERAE 49

Fic. 5. Pinus Taeda, about 32 inches in diameter and 60 feet tall, in
open grove on east side of University campus. Photographed by Walter B.
Jones, June 29, 1928.

50 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 6. Trunk of Pinus Taeda, about 46 inches in diameter, in old
flood-plain of Warrior River about two miles south of Tuscaloosa. May
31, 1913.

References :—Ashe 3, Betts, Hall & Maxwell 2, Hopkins,
Mohr 18, Sterrett 2.

This species grows in a great variety of soils, including nearly
all but the richest and poorest, wettest and driest, and in every
region in the state except the Mobile delta, and probably in every
county. It is almost the only pine which will grow in places sub-
ject to inundation by muddy rivers. A great deal of it now is
second growth, and in some of the more fertile regions, such as the
Tennessee Valley and black belt, it may be more abundant now
than it was originally, having sprung up in many old fields whose
soil was impoverished by long cultivation. Its relative abundance
in different regions is indicated as follows:

1A. Abundant in northern Limestone County, where it is cut for
lumber.

1B. Comparatively rare, and mostly second growth.

1C. Rather common.

CONIFERAE 51

2A. Common nearly throughout, except north of the Tennessee River
and on the highest elevations south of there. Apparently more abundant
eastward than westward.

2B. The most abundant tree.
3. Very common.

4. Ravines and lower slopes of the mountains. Rare or absent above
1500 feet above sea-level.

5. Common throughout, but much of it second growth.

6A. The most abundant tree, but in the northern portion mostly con-
fined to valleys.

6B. Common in yalleys.
6C. Very common.
7. On the poorer soils; much of it second growth.

8. Generally distributed; much second growth.

9. Abundant throughout.

10-11. Common, especially in valleys.

12. Mostly near creeks and rivers.

13. Creek bottoms, etc.; not abundant.

15. Common along bay shores, etc., in the richer soils.

Pinus serotina, Mx. BLack PINE. (Called pond

pine in many books, but that name is misleading, and prob-
ably not genuine. )

(Figs. 7, 8)

Similar in appearance to P. Taeda, except that it has shorter
branches, and often many small leafy shoots along the trunk, giv-
ing it a shaggy appearance which is very characteristic. The cones
are smaller and less prickly, egg-shaped when closed, and they
usually hang on for several years, so that there are more of them
on the tree at one time than in the case of most of our other pines.
Its wood is similar to that of the preceding species, but too rare in

Alabama to be of any economic importance. (Dr. Mohr did not
know of its occurrence in the state at all.*)

Grows mostly in sour swamps and bogs in long-leaf pine
regions, in the coastal plain.

6A. Bogs along Yellow Leaf Creek east of Thorsby, Chilton County.

6B or 6C. Swamps along and near Autauga Creek about a mile above
and two miles below Booth. (The accompanying illustrations include two
pictures of the same tree taken over 21 years apart, showing that it grew
very little in the interval.)

10E. Damp sandy flats between Waterford and Daleville, Dale County.
12. Scattered in Dale, Houston, Geneva and Covington Counties.
13. Near Andalusia and Lockhart, Covington County.

*For an account of its discovery in Alabama see Bull. Torrey Bot.

Club, 33:524. 1906.

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

on
bo

7 8

Fics. 7, 8. Pinus serotina. ‘Two views of same tree, in swamp of
3ridge Creek at crossing of M. & O. R. R., Autauga County. April 22,
1906, and June 9, 1927. The tree gained very little in height in 21 years,
and was only about two feet in diameter at the latter date.

Pinus echinata, Mill. (P. mitis, Mx.)

SHORT-LEAF (OR ROSEMARY) PINE.
4jo. G
(Fig. 9)

A tree sometimes two or three feet in diameter and 75 feet
tall, with short leaves and small cones. Blooms about the same
time as P. Taeda, or possibly a few days later.

The wood of this species is much like that of P. Taeda but a
little better, and it is cut extensively for lumber in regions where it
is common and the long-leaf pine rare or unknown. It also makes
very good fuel, like most other pines. Near negro farm-houses a
large living tree can often be seen with a great cavity in its side,
from which the negroes chop out “lightwood,” a little at a time.
This species is offered for sale for ornamental purposes in some
nurserymen’s catalogues, and is said to be hardy as far north as
southern New England (which however is not much north of its
natural range). Twigs of it are sometimes used to stop cracks in
gravel cars, like other pines.

References :—Betts, Hall & Maxwell 2, Hopkins, Mattoon 2, Mohr 18.

CONIFERAE 53

Fic. 9. Pinus echinata (the nearest one 20 inches in
diameter) in dry woods about six miles east of Tuscaloosa.
October 13, 1911.

It is confined to dry soils, but seems to require a moderate
amount of iron and alumina, if not potash. Most pines avoid cal-
careous soils, but this one grows on top of some of the high lime-
stone cliffs on the Tennessee River in Madison and Marshall
Counties. It seems to resist fire pretty well, but the woods in
which it grows are not burned as often as the long-leaf pine forests.
It is common throughout the northern half of Alabama, and grad-
ually disappears southward.

1A. Common in Limestone County, in the driest soils.

1B. Mostly second growth, in the poorest soils; not common.
1C. Common.

2A, 2B. Very common on uplands.

3. Common on dry ridges, in old fields, etc.

54 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

4. Common, especially on the tops of ridges, where they are not too
rocky.
5. Very common on dry red hills, but a good deal of it is second

J.

growth. In Tallapoosa County it seems to be the prevailing pine.

6A. Common in dry woods; some of it second growth.

6B. On hills, but not in the sandiest soils.

6C. Same as 6A.

7. On patches of red loam overlying the Selma chalk, and in old
fields.

8. Frequent on dry uplands, especially in old fields.

9. Abundant throughout, and cut by all the sawmills.

10E. Common on uplands.

10W, 11. Dry ridges, often very slender.

12, 13. Rather rare, in richer soils. Extends south to near Hurricane,
Baldwin County.

Pinus glabra, \Valt. SPRUCE PINE.
(Map: 8. -Bizs. 1011)

A handsome tree, remarkable for the smooth bark on those
parts of the trunk that are less than 8 or 10 inches in diameter,
the soft wood, unarmed cones, and bluish gray foliage. (In all
these respects it resembles the northern white pine, but it is not
very closely related to that.) It ocasionally attains a diameter of
42 inches and a height of 80 feet, but on the average it is probably
no larger than the preceding species. Its leaves and cones are
about the same length as those of P. echinata. It blooms usually
in March.

The wood is the softest and lightest of all the Alabama pines,
with the possible exception of P. clausa (which is rare in this
state). It answers very well for crates and interior finish, and
where there is enough of it it is used to some extent for fences,
weatherboards, etc., but it 1s not very durable. It would doubtless
make a good ornamental tree, on account of its handsome appear-
ance and its preference for richer soils than most other pines.

References :—Mohr 10, 18.

This species grows mostly in hammocks, ravines, and bottom
lands, where fire is rare, and it seldom if ever makes pure stands,
as most other conifers do, but is mixed with magnolia, beech,

CONIFERAE 55

Fic. 10. Pinus glabra, about two feet in diameter and 75 feet tall, in
Conecuh River bottoms northwest of Troy, Pike County. December 11,
1905.

sweet gum, and other hardwoods. It is strictly confined to the
coastal plain, and scarcely extends north of latitude 33° in any
part of its range.

6A (7). One or two small trees a little south of Maplesville, perhaps
of recent introduction. Native along a small creek about six miles east of
Wetumpka, and along creeks in the northern part of Macon County. Sev-
eral years ago some pine cones from a peaty stratum in a cut near Mountain
Creek, Chilton Co., were referred by Prof. E. W. Berry to this species. If
that is correct it must have ranged a little farther north in Pliocene or
Pleistocene time than it does now.

56 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 11. Trunk of Pinus glabra, 30 inches in diameter, in creek bot-
toms about four miles east of Ozark, Dale County, December 12, 1905.

6C. Autauga, Elmore, Macon, and probably Russell County; rather
rare.

7. Occasional in creek bottoms, Dallas, Montgomery and Bullock
Counties.

8. Common in creek bottoms throughout.
10E. Frequent in creek and river bottoms.

10W. Common in ravines and bottoms, up to the northern edge of
Choctaw County and presumably the southwest corner of Sumter.

11. Ravines, bluffs, etc.; common.

12. Hammocks, etc.; not common.

13. Occasional in hammocks in Washington and Escambia Counties.
Rare in Mobile and Baldwin.

CONIFERAE 57

“
SS
Wet .
Soe
c

“

| Ces MAP + ALABAMA
| ss SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL. REGIONS
} : AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF |
\ PINUS VIRGINIANA |
aA Ne tHe SPRUCE ries | us as |
RMH 1928

Map 8. Known distribution of Pinus Virgimiana and Pinus glabra,
with relative abundance of the former indicated approximately by dots.

58 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Pinus Virginiana, Mill.(P. mops, Ait.) Spruce Pine. Also
called bastard, cliff, or nigger pine.)

(Map 8, Fig. 12)

A small to medium-sized scrubby-looking tree, not usually
more than a foot in diameter and 40 feet tall, with very short
leaves, thin scaly bark, and light soft wood that decays easily.

It is offered for sale by some nurserymen, but is probably not
much m demand for ornamental purposes. It is said to have once
been used largely for water-pipes and pump-logs in Kentucky
(where other pines are scarce). Logs of it are sometimes used for
temporary trestle work around mines and furnaces, where there is
nothing else more handy for the purpose. It grows in the neigh-
borhood of nearly every coal mine in Alabama, and its twigs, like
those of several other pines, are often used to stop crevices in hop-
per-bottomed cars of coal. It of course makes fuel, like most other
trees, but as the fuel value of wood is approximately proportiona
to its weight, this species does not rank high in that respect.

In the last 25 years or so it has come to be used a good dea
for paper pulp (like the northern spruces, which it somewhat re:
sembles ), especially in Maryland and Virginia. In June, 1921, the
Birmingham Age-Herald printed an edition on paper made from
some of this tree cut in Tuscaloosa County and worked up in some
northern paper mill. There is certainly plenty of it in Alabamz
but most of it is in rather rough and inaccessible places, anc
whether it can be cut and delivered to a mill in large enough quan
tities and cheaply enough to compete with the supply in more leve
country in Virginia and Maryland and the spruces farther north,
remains to be seen.

References :—Harper 13, Sterrett 1, Wells & Rue.

In Alabama it is chiefly confined to steep rocky slopes, cliffs
and bluffs, north of the fall line; all of these places being pretty
well protected from fire, to which all pines with very short leaves
and thin bark seem to be sensitive. It nearly always grows in dense
pure stands, like the northern spruces. It occasionally invades old
fields, but not as much with us as in the middle states. Its distri-
bution is shown by dots on the map, and may be summed up by
regions as follows:

CONIFERAE 59

Fic. 12. Pinus Virginiana, of various sizes and
shapes, on bluffs on left side of Warrior River about
ten miles above Tuscaloosa. Walter B. Jones, June
21, 1928.

1A, 1B. On steep slopes and rocky creek banks near Riverton and
Florence, also in northeastern Jackson County and near Blount Springs.
Some second growth near Leighton, Colbert County.

1C. Colbert County.
2A. Common on cliffs and rocky slopes, especially eastward.

2B. Abundant on steep rocky and shaly bluffs, especially near rivers.
Constitutes probably at least 5% of the forest.

3. On rocky hills near the edges of some of the valleys, and also as
second growth, but not common.

4. Frequent on sandstone cliffs, etc.

5. Rare, except in the northeastern part of Chilton County, which is
not very typical of the Piedmont region.

6A. A few old-field specimens near Thorsby, Chilton County.

60 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

6B (?). Ona bare rocky knob between Cottondale and Duncanville,
Tuscaloosa County; apparently the only place in the coastal plain south of
Virginia where it is native.

There are unconfirmed reports (by Prof. Sargent, in a letter) of its
occurrence somewhere near Selma; possibly an old field specimen, or some
other species mistaken for it in the herbarium.

Pinus clausa (Fngelm.) Sarg. (FLoripA) SPRUCE PINE.

A small tree, much like the preceding (and once regarded as
a variety of it), but belonging to warmer climates. The two prob-
ably do not grow naturally within 200 miles of each other. Its
wood is soft and weak, and seldom used for any purpose, but it
would probably do for paper pulp if there was enough of it.

References :—Harper 13, Mohr 11, Wells & Rue.

In Alabama it is confined to stationary dunes of pure white
sand on the coast of Baldwin County. It is otherwise known
only from Florida, where it is widely distributed, usually on the
same kind of soil.

TSUGA, Carriere. THE HEMLOCKS.

Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr.
(EASTERN) HEMLOCK, OR SPRUCE PINE.

A handsome evergreen tree, with short flat blunt leaves, which
make a dense shade. Blooms in spring.

Although too rare to be of any importance in Alabama, this
species has many uses elsewhere. It is sometimes cultivated for
ornament or hedges in the North (more rarely in the South), and
it also makes a pretty good Christmas tree. Sixteen horticultural
varieties of it have been named. Inthe mountains from New York
to Georgia, and also as far west as Michigan, its bark is gathered
in large quantities for tanning purposes, and the timber remaining
then often allowed to rot in the woods. Its wood makes pretty fair
lumber, though, something like some of the pines; and its sap is
said to have some medicinal properties.

References :—Frothingham, Harper 4, 16, Prentiss.

Grows in cool shaded ravines and gorges, rarely or never
visited by fire. In Alabama confined to the coal region, and almost

CONIFERAE 61

to the plateau subdivision thereof. Its known distribution by coun-
ties is as follows:
FRANKLIN: Near Spruce Pine (named for this tree), on a tributary

of Big Bear Creek; and said by residents there to extend about twenty
miles down the creek. (See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:524-525. 1906.)

Marton: Along Brush Creek at the great viaduct of the Illinois Cen-
tral R. R., and doubtless at various other places.

Wixston: Along Sipsey River and Clear Creek (Peters, Mohr), and
at the Natural Bridge. (See Monog. 8, pp. 49, 136.)

Jackson: In the Pisgah “gulf” near the northwestern edge of Sand
Mountain. (Harbison, Biltmore Bot. Stud. 1:154. 1902.)

Jerrerson: Along Village Creek about 3 miles southwest of Adams-
ville. This seems to be its southernmost known station (See Torreya
19:198-199. Oct., 1919) though there is a later unconfirmed report of its
occurrence in Tuscaloosa County.

TAXODIUM, Richard. ‘THE CyprEssEs.

Taxodium distichum (I,.) Richard. (River) Cypress. (Also
called white, yellow, red and black cypress, according to the
appearance of the wood.)

(Map 9, Figs. 13, 14)

A large deciduous tree, reaching in this state a diameter of
about five feet—above the enlarged base—and a height of 100 or
even 120 feet. It grows slowly, and lives for several hundred
years, something like its relatives the Sequoias of California, but
seems to reach its maximum height in about 100 years, after which
it becomes more and more flat-topped, giving it a characteristic
appearance by which it can often be recognized at a distance of
over a mile. The bark is thin and fibrous, something like that of
the cedar. The leaves are commonly arranged in two opposite rows
on short feather-like branchlets which fall with the leaves attached,
like compound leaves, in late fall. The wood is light and soft in
spite of its slow growth, but very durable, probably on account of
some chemical properties which resist bacteria. It blooms in Feb-
ruary and March, and ripens its seeds in the fall of the same year.

Economically the cypress is a very important tree. Outside
of its natural range it is often planted in parks and streets, where
it grows very well in ordinary dry soil, and faster than in its native
haunts (because it is relieved from the competition of other trees).
It is said to be hardy as far north as Massachusetts in this country

62 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 13. Tasxodium distichum (with a few
specimens of Nyssa uniflora, etc.) in swamp of
Big Creek, about four miles west of North-
port, Tuscaloosa County, March 4, 1913.

and England in the Old World. Several horticultural varieties
have been named. Cultivated trees are nearly always narrowly
conical in outline, like young trees in nature, probably because few
of them are old enough yet to be flat-topped.

On account of its durability the wood is used especially for
piles, telegraph poles, crossties, water pipes, tanks, vats, tubs,
buckets, freezers, churns, and shingles. ‘Tanks and pipes made of
it for use in chemical industries are said to resist the action of acids
and alkalies better than almost any other common wood. By the
early settlers large cypress logs were carved into boats, troughs,
washtubs, and the hollow‘‘knees” used for buckets, flower-vases,
and the like. Around New Orleans the palings of many old fences

CONIFERAE 63

Fic. 14. A few old and many young specimens of Tarodium distichum
in old flood-plain of Alabama River about a mile northeast of Montgom-
ery. October 26, 1926. The young trees are quite differently shaped from
the old ones, and their abundance at this particular place must be due to
some sort of human interference, perhaps a generation or two ago.

are made of broad split slabs of this species. Other common uses
for cypress wood, when sawed, are for trestles, barrels, interior
finish, furniture, doors, sash and blinds, greenhouse frames, gut-
HeES, ctc:

References: Fernow, Hall & Maxwell 1, Harper 1, 2, Mat-
toon 1.

This species grows normally in calcareous and alluvial swamps,
where the water does not fluctuate more than about twenty feet in
the course of a year.* (It is therefore usually absent from the
immediate banks of our larger rivers, except near their mouths;
and there is much more of it on the Tombigbee River than on the
Alabama, probably because the fluctuations of the former were
less, even before the building of locks and dams on it two or three
decades ago.) Its knees usually grow to the height of average
high water, or perhaps to the greatest height at which the water
stands for a week (or whatever is their maximum period of en-
durance) at a time; which seems to be never more than six feet.
Fire is rare or unknown in the cypress swamps, but if it came it

*See Torreya, 11:228, 231. 1911; Science, 36:760-761. Nov. 29, 1912.

64 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

NI

WW QQ
RSSSss
NSA
MAP + ALABAMA
SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF
TAXODIUM DISTICHUM 4]

THE CYPRESSES
TAXODIUM IMBRICARIUM

RH. 1926

Map 9. Known distribution of Taxodium distichum and T. ascendens.
(T. imbricarium). The locality for the former on Cypress Creek near Flor-
ence was inadvertently omitted.

CONTFPE RAE 65

would probably do considerable damage, on account of the tree’s
thin bark.

Its distribution in Alabama is rather irregular, but as far as
present knowledge permits it is shown on the accompanying map
by solid black along streams. It is assumed that wherever this
species has been observed along any creek it occurs from that point
all the way down to its mouth, unless we have information to the
contrary. It is confined to the coastal plain, except for extending
a little farther inland along the Tennessee, Coosa and ‘Tallapoosa
Rivers and some of their tributaries.* On account of being almost
confined to the banks and swamps of rivers, it does not constitute
a large proportion of the forest of any region except the Mobile
delta, which is practically all swamp (and probably most of the
original supply there has been cut out). It grows so slowly in the
swamps that it does not have much chance to restore itself after
logging operations.

Taxodium ascendens Brong. (7. imbricarium (Nutt.) Harper.)
(PonpD) Cypress. (Probably also called black cypress. )

(Map 9, Fig. 15)

This tree has been confused with the preceding by most botan-
ists, foresters and lumbermen, and nearly all geologists and soil
mappers; but it differs in being smaller (hardly ever more than
two feet in diameter above the enlarged base and fifty feet tall),
the base often more abruptly enlarged and always with rounded
instead of sharp ridges, the bark thicker and coarsely ridged (this
difference can often be seen even in crossties, which have only a
small strip of bark left), the trunk always a little crooked (in
mature trees), the knees usually wanting, but when present short
and rounded, and the leaves appressed to erect branchlets instead
of flat and horizontal (except on young shoots, where they may be
indistinguishable from those of the other species). Its distribution,
habitat, and relations to fire are also different, as will be pointed
out presently.

Its economic properties are about the same as those of 7. dis-
tichum, except that the trunks are usually too small and crooked to
make boats out of. Its principal uses are for telegraph and tele-

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:525. 1906.

66 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 15. Scattered trees of Tarodium ascendens, with a few slash
pines, in savanna about seven miles west of Lillian, Baldwin County.
Photegraph by Dr. E. A. Smith and R. S$. Hodges, August 13, 1902.

phone poles and crossties. In Washington, D. C., I have seen one
of the large hollow bases with a few feet of the trunk inverted and
used for a flower urn in a yard (and it lasted at least twenty years,
and may be there yet). This species, like the other, is occasionally
planted in parks and along streets in the North and in Europe, and
it is or has been known to the horticultural trade as “Glyptostrobus
pendulus,’ and erroneously considered a native of China or Japan.

References. Earper enc. 13.

This species grows in shallow ponds, and swamps of branches
and creeks which are seldom or never muddy and do not fluctuate
more than two or three feet. Fire sometimes sweeps through such
places in dry seasons, but does little harm to the cypress, on ac-
count of its thick bark. Its range is much more restricted than
that of T. distichum (see map), and it seems to be confined to
regions where late summer is the wettest season. Its known dis-
tribution by regions is as follows:

CONIFERAE 67

10E. Shallow ponds in Coffee County a few miles southwest of Elba,
and in southern edge of Dale County.

12, 13. Rather common in ponds and along small streams.

15. Occasional on bay shores, Baldwin County.

CHAMECYPARIS, Spach. (Crpars)
Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P. JUNIPER (WuiIte CEpar.)

An evergreen tree looking something like the common red
cedar, but usually easily distinguished by its habitat. It has very
durable wood, much like the cypresses, and is therefore largely used
for poles to carry electric wires, as well as for cross-ties, fence-
posts, palings, shingles, boats, water-buckets, etc. It is sometimes
cultivated for ornament (more in the North than in Alabama), and
about a dozen horticultural varieties are recognized by the trade.
Other uses on record for the wood are interior finish, gunpowder,
charcoal, and lampblack.

References :—Hall & Maxwell 1, Harper 13.

Grows in cool swamps, with water that fluctuates very little
with the seasons and is practically free from mud, lime, iron and
sulphur. Part of the water supply of Mobile comes from streams
in which it grows, and the same was formerly true of Brooklyn,

N. Y. Although it ranges northward to New England, in Ala-
bama it is confined to the southwestern pine hills (region 13), in
which its known distribution by counties is as follows:

WASHINGTON: Creek swamp near Calvert.

Moprire: Cedar Creek, in the northeastern part of the county, is prob-
ably named for this species, and it grows also along several creeks within
about 15 miles of Mobile, in various directions. A few specimens seen near
Grand Bay.

Batpwin: Above Tensaw (Bartram). On the shores of Mobile Bay
near Fairhope, and north of Daphne, along Fish River between Fairhope
and Silver Hill) and along two or three very clear small creeks a few miles
east of Foley.

EscamMsia: Along Escambia River at several places.

68 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

JUNIPERUS, L. CrEpars AND JUNIPERS.
Juniperus Virginiana, L.. (Sabina of some authors)( RED) CEDAR

(Map 10, Figs. 16, 17)

A well-known evergreen tree, blooming in early spring, and
attaining a considerable size when it has a chance, but it has been
so extensively exploited for its wood that trees over a foot in
diameter are now scarce, outside of cultivation.

It has long been cultivated for ornament, and occasionally for
hedges, in all the eastern states, and to some extent in Europe.
(Sudworth lists 31 horticultural varieties.) Straight driveways
lined with double rows of cedar lead from the highways to the
front steps of many old mansions in the South, especially in cal-
careous regions. The uses of the wood are various, some of them
based on its durability, some on its softness and straight grain,
some on its color, and some on its odor. Long logs are used for
piles, telegraph and telephone poles, and trestle bents, and shorter
pieces for fence-posts. Sawed lumber is made into buckets, churns,
clothes-chests (on account of the odor, which repels moths), and
especially for pencils. In Middle Tennessee, where it is one of
the most abundant trees, and pines are scarce, cedar was formerly
used a great deal for building houses, boats and furniture, and even
for cross-ties and fence-rails.

No other wood has been found which possesses just the right
physical properties for the casing of lead-pencils, and the supply
of straight-grained cedar suited for this purpose is now barely suf-
ficient, so that its use for other purposes (except perhaps fence-
posts, for which knotty pieces will answer just as well) has fallen
off considerably. When used for pencils its durability, color and
odor are no object, and these qualities are therefore wasted, one
might say. The shavings are used to keep away moths, and a valu-
abl oil is made from the wood and green twigs.

Several writers on the subject have expressed the opinion that
the supply of cedar was rapidly approaching exhaustion, but the
gloomiest predictions about it have not been realized. F. A.
Michaux, author of a North American Sylva, seemed to think it
was on the verge of extinction over a hundred years ago, when
most people had little use for pencils and the number of possible
consumers was only a fraction of what it is now; but judging from

CONIFERAE 69

Fic. 16. Juniperus Virginiana on limestone outcrops in Jones Valley
between Grasselli and Wheeling, Jefferson County. September 30, 1912.

the quantities that one can still see in the eastern part of the Ten-
nessee Valley, growing on the mountain slopes or piled up await-
ing shipment at nearly every railroad station, the end of our sup-
ply is not yet in sight. It is true that the largest trees have disap-
peared, but there are still about as many small ones as ever, most
of them on land too rocky to plow, which seems better suited for
the growing of cedar than anything else. And if the native stock
should ever get too depleted it could be supplemented by cultiva-
tion, to which this species responds very readily. It will grow in
any temperate climate that is not too dry, and in almost any soil
that is not too wet.

References: Harper 9, Mohr 23, White.

The red cedar has quite a variety of natural habitats, ranging
from dry cliffs—of both limestone and sandstone—and gravelly
ridges to damp shady flatwoods and hammocks, shell mounds, and
edges of salt marshes. It is also common along fences and road-
sides, where birds have dropped the seeds. But all its diverse
habitats seem to have one thing in common, and _ perhaps’ two.
First, they are well protected from fire by the topography, proxim-
ity of water, sparseness of the surrounding vegetation (as on
rocks), or dampness of the humus. It also seems likely, though
that point has not been specially investigated, that earthworms are
rare or absent in the soils in which it grows naturally. This is
certainly true of the cliffs, and probably of the strongly calcareous

70 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 17. Burned forest of Juniperus Virginiana on limestone slopes
of Smithers Mountain (above the Hartselle sandstone), Madison County,
March 16, 1913. This is a very unusual sight, for the habitats of the
cedar are generally well protected from fire. The fire probably originated
in the oak woods on the sandstone below, and ran up the slope.

soils. In Alabama and other southern states the cedar is com-
monly regarded as being especially partial to limestone, but there
seems to be no such relation in New England, and even with us it
grows perfectly well on granite and sandstone.

The cedars near the coast of the southeastern states are re-
garded by some of the splitters as a distinct species, which has
been called at different times Juniperus Barbadensis, J. Lucayana,
and Sabina silicicola; but the alleged differences are very small.
And if there were really two species in these states one of three
conditions could have to be fulfilled. First, their ranges might
be entirely distinct and widely separated, like those of the closely
related Pinus Virginiana and P. clausa, already mentioned. But
there is no considerable gap, as the map shows, and if the coast
cedars are really different from those in the Tennessee Valley
those in the lime hills would probably have to be put with them.
Second, they might intergrade over an ill-defined zone, as many
pairs of doubtfully species seem to do. But the splitters have not
suggested any intergradation. Third, they might overlap and oc-
cupy different habitats in the zone common to both, like our two

CONIFERAE 71

MAP er ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

RED CEDAR

RMH 1928

Map 10. Distribution of Juniperus Virginiana.

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

“SI
bo

cypresses. But that has not been demonstrated either. So for the
present at least it seems best to treat our red cedars as all one
species.

Its known distribution by regions is as follows:

1A. Rocky places near Elkmont, Florence, etc.

1B. Very abundant on limestone on mountain slopes and river cliffs,
and scattered in the red valley lands. It seems to be the commonest tree
in the region at present, and perhaps always has been.

1C. Weeden Mountain, Madison Co., and Little Mountain, Colbert Co. ;
on sandstone.

2A. On sandstone cliffs, frequent but nowhere abundant.

2B. On shaly bluffs, etc., mostly along rivers.

3. Fairly common on limestone outcrops and in flatwoods, especially
in Jefferson County.

4. On high cliffs, Cedar Mountain, Clay County.

5. Rather rare, mostly in rocky places along the Coosa River and else-
where.

6A. Occasional along roadsides, but rare in perfectly natural places.

6C. Old fields, etc., and possibly native in a few places in Autauga
and Dallas Counties.

7. Common on chalk outcrops and river bluffs, especially westward

8. Bluffs, etc., rare. Montgomery and Barbour Counties, and perhaps
in the northern edge of Wilcox.

10E. On limestone near Clayton and Lawrenceville, and along the
Pea River in Coffee County.

10W. Abundant in northeastern Wilcox County and adjacent Butler,
on limestone at the base of the Eocene. A good deal of it was cut ov’
long ago by a pencil mill at Greenville.

11. Frequent on limestone outcrops and bluffs. Said to have been
exported from the vicinity of Suggsville about ninety years ago.

12. Limestone outcrops mestly. Covington, Geneva and Houston Coun-
ties.

13. Along creeks near Brewton.

15. On shell mounds and shores of estuaries.

GRAMINEAE (OR POACEAE). Grass FamILy

Includes about 4,500 species, in all parts of the world. The
bamboos and their relatives, native of warm climates, are woody,
but the great majority of grasses are herbaceous. Their seeds
and foliage furnish more food for man and beast than any other
family of plants. Some yield fiber and building material, and
many are cultivated for lawns or for ornament.

ARUNDINARIA, Michaux. CANES AND REEDS.

This genus is not very fully understood, partly on account of
the scarcity of flowers and seeds, and the number of species in
North America may be anywhere from one to three or four. In
Alabama there seem to be two, or possibly three.

GRAMINEAE 73

Arundinaria macrosperma, Mx. (A. gigantea, Chapm. )
(LarGE) CANE

(Figs. 18, 19)

The stem of the cane, like its tropical relatives the bamboos,
combines lightness with strength to a remarkable degree, and for
that reason it is used very largely for fishing poles. Being hol-
low, single joints are also used by small boys for popguns and
similar toys. ‘The leaves are evergreen or nearly so in our climate,
and the plant is offered for sale for ornamental purposes by some
nurserymen.

There are traditions of remarkably luxuriant growths of cane
in Alabama and other southern states a century and more ago,
which would be hard to believe if they did not come from so many
independent and apparently reliable sources. According to Maj.
Harry Hammond, it is said to have once covered almost the whole
face of the earth in upper South Carolina.* arly settlers in the
black belt of Alabama found it (or possibly the other species) so
abundant there that they called that the cane-brake region ; a name
still in occasional use. Down in the western division of the red
hills, or adjacent line hills, the trail from Claiborne to Suggsville
early in the last century is said to have traversed a dense thicket
of it, where the canes on both sides were worn by the saddle bags
of travelers, and grew as high as a man on horse-back could reach
with an umbrella.+ Bartram in the 18th century claimed to have
seen specimens of it in the Mobile delta which were three or four
inches in diameter and thirty or forty feet tall.¢ But I have
never seen one much over an inch in diameter and twenty feet tall.
Just what happened to these vast thickets of tall cane is somewhat
of a mystery. No doubt grazing and fire have had much to do
with their disappearance, but one would hardly suppose that they
could have been completely wiped out in that way from such large
areas, and then superseded by other native plants which seem per-
fectly at home and look as they might have been there for cen-
turies.

The large cane blooms in April, but apparently only in the
last year of its life, when it may be as much as fifty years old;

*South Carolina (handbook), p. 146. 1883.
+T. H. Ball, (History of) Clarke County, p. 174. 1882.
tBartram, Travels, (ed 1), p. 410. 1791.

74 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 18. Arundinaria macrosperma on left bank of Warrior
River about a mile below Holt, Tuscaloosa County. April 10,
1906.

so that in any one locality the blooming and seeding of the cane
may be witnessed only once in a generation or two and looked
upon as a sort of miracle* Its present habitat 1s mostly on river
banks and in creek swamps, a little below high-water mark, and its

distribution in Alabama by regions is about as follows:

1B. Common along the Tennessee River and some of the larger creeks.

1C. Colbert County.
2B. Mostly on the Warrior River and its larger tributaries.

*See Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama, pages 103, 389.

7S

GRAMINEAE

MmacKra-

( Arundinaria

dense cane-brake
Sperma) on Big Creek, about four miles west of Northport, Tus-

March 4, 1913.

Interior of

Fic: 19:
caloosa County.

76 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. Mostly on the Coosa River and its larger tributaries.

6A. Common along creeks, especially in Tuscaloosa County.

6C. On the Warrior and Alabama Rivers and their larger tributaries.

7 and 8. Fairly common.

9. Sumter and Marengo Counties.

10E.. On Conecuh River near Hallsville, Pike Co., and doubtless on
other streams.

10W, 11. Frequent.

14. In upper portion of the delta.

What may be another species, resembling A. macrosperma
except in size (being smaller) and habitat, grows on sandstone,
shale and limestone, cliffs in various parts of the state, as follows:

1B. On limestone mountain slopes, within a few miles of the Tennes-
see River in Jackson, Madison ana Marshall Counties.

2B. Bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County. Cliffs near War-
rior River, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Near Sylacauga.

11. Hatchetigbee Bluff on Tombigbee River, Washington County.

Arundinaria tecta ( Walt.) Muhl. SMALL CANE OR REED
(Fig. 20)

This species rarely if ever exceeds half an inch in diameter
and ten feet in height, and most of the specimens at the present
time seem to be only about knee-high. It is shorter-lived than
A. macrosperma, and therefore blooms at shorter intervals. It is
evergreen in this latitude, though perhaps not in Virginia. It is
offered for sale by nurserymen, and is more graceful and perhaps
easier to handle than the large cane. Its stems are too small and
weak for fishing poles, but the leaves and young shoots make ex-
cellent forage for cattle. The Choctaw Indians in eastern Missis-
sipp1 make baskets of it.

It grows mostly in sandy bogs, wet woods, and non-alluvial
swamps, south of the coal regions, as follows:

2A. Along Ejight-mile Creek, Cullman County.

4. Along branches 1500 to 1900 feet above sea-level on the southeast
slopes of the Blue Ridge in Clay County, and along a small creek west of
Hollins.

5. Frequent, mostly southward.

6A. Fairly common from Marion County southward, perhaps reaching
its best development in creek swamps in Tuscaloosa County.

6B. Common in sandy bogs in Chilton and Autauga Counties.

6C. Frequent.

7. Said by Dr. Mohr to be the cane which gave this region one of its
popular names; but now apparently rare, except in a few damp sandy
places.

8. Crenshaw, Pike and Barbour Counties.
9. About five miles southwest of Livingston.

GRAMINEAE

Fic. 20. Arunainaria tecta
Cribbs’s Creek, about two miles
1906.

10E. Frequent.
10W. Occasional.
11. Near Monroeville.

in (non-alluvial) swamp of
south of Tuscaloosa. March 16,

12. Near Dothan.
13. Scattered throughout.
14. Near Magazine Point, Mobile Co.

77

78 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

PALMAE (or ARECACEAE). Patm Famity

About 1,000 species, in tropical and warm-temperate regions,
all more or less woody, with large stiff evergreen leaves; and
many of them are tall unbranched trees. Most of the palms are
ornamental, and many yield building materials, fiber, oil, food or
medicine.

SABAL, Adanson. THE PALMETTOES.

Sabal minor, Jacq. (S. glabra (Mill.) Sarg.; S$. Adansonu,
Guerns. ) (DwarF, OR SWAMP) PALMETTO.

(Map 11)

Our commonest and most widely distributed palm, with
smooth fan-like leaves sometimes four or five feet tall; blooming
in June and July. Very little use is made of it in Alabama, ex-
cept that the leaves have been shipped from Evergreen for deco-
rative purposes, along with other evergreens. ‘They could also be
used for fans, and woven into hats, baskets, etc. ‘The leaves are
often nibbled by cattle, especially when young.

Grows normally in muddy swamps, but also common in low
calcareous pastures in the black belt and near-by regions. Almost
confined to the coastal plain.

5. Rare on Tallapoosa River a few miles above Tallassee, with Taxo-
dium distichum, Tillandsia usneoides, etc. Said to have formerly occurred
on the Coosa County side of the Coosa River a little above “Lock 12”, but
submerged by the big dam there about 1914.*

6A. Bottoms of Big Sanay Creek near Duncanville, Tuscaloosa
County.

6C. Near Aliceville, Akron and Burnsville.

7. Frequent, often in pastures as above stated.

8. Bottoms of Pine Barren Creek, Wilcox County.

10E. Along rivers near Newton and Elba.

10W. Choctaw, Marengo, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Near Geneva and Gordon.

13. Along Conecuh River east of Brewton.

14. Common, at least in the lower part. L. C. Johnson, on page 696
of the Alabama coastal plain report (1895) describes a large “palmetto
brake” in Baldwin County, which must be in the delta, though he does not
specify the locality.

15. Near Coden, Bon Secour and Orange Beach.

*See Torrevya 14:155. 1914.

PALMAE 79

SERENOA, J. D. Hooker. (Only one species.)

Serenoa serrulata (Mx.) B. & H. (Corypha repens Bartr.?)
SAW-PALMETTO

(Map 11)

Readily recognized by its pale yellowish green leaves, with
stalks armed along the edges with short stout prickles. In Ala-
bama and most other parts of its range its coarsely fibrous trunk
or rootstock lies prostrate on or just below the surface of the
ground, and its foliage is not more than knee-high; but in some
parts of Florida, where there is sufficient protection from fire,
the leaves may be five or six feet tall, or the trunk may stick up
in the air as much as ten feet, obliquely or even vertically. It
blooms mostly in June, but perhaps not every year in the same
plant.

The leaves of this species are not quite as good as the pre-
ceding for decorative purposes, but the plant is more useful in
other ways. In Florida. where it is most abundant, short sections
of the trunk are made into brushes, and the leaf-stalks are some-
times shredded into “hair” for plastering. Mattresses have been
made from the leaf-fiber in South Carolina, according to Porcher.
The plant contains considerable tannin, and is claimed to be sutt-
able for paper pulp also. The terminal buds are edible, and the
tender young leaves are browsed by cattle. Hogs like to eat the
ripe fruit, which is about the size of a plum. This fruit has im-
portant medicinal properties, and is officinal in the U. S. Pharma-
copoeia. Large quantities of it have been shipped from Florida to
patent medicine manufacturers.

This species is confined to regions with mild climate and
rainy summers, and in most parts of its range it grows in nearly
pure sand, where the ground-water is never far from the surface.
It can stand considerable fire. Its known distribution in Alabama

is about as follows:

12. In deep sand along Pea River and Double Bridges Creek near
Geneva.

13. Sand along creek east of Flomaton (December, 1905), along
Chickasawbogue Creek from about 11 to 21 miles northwest of Mobile,
and also in the vicinity of Mount Vernon and Grand Bay, and in the flat
country bordering the bay south of Mobile. In Baldwin I have seen it
near Little River at the north edge of the county, near Fish River east of
Fairhope, and southeast of Foley.

15 Near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

80 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

a Ls |
i ay ”
a a
YS ’
,
' ,
~ . , '
2 RE
\
ee

faa ss-555 >

MAP * “ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

A FEN OP OUR THREE PALMS
DY ee, (INLAND LIMITS OF SABAL AND SERENOA,
— AND DOTS FOR RHAPIDOPHYLLUM)}

a
RMH 1926

Map 11. Inland limits of Sabal minor and Serenoa serrulata, and
known distribution of Rhapidophyllum Hystrix.

PALMAE 81

Fic. 21. Rhapidophyllum in swamp of Murder Creek, southwest
of Evergreen, Conecuh County. December 17, 1905.

RHAPIDOPHYLLUM, Wendland & Drude.
(Only one species)
Rhapidophyllum Hystrix (Pursh) W. & D. (NEEDLE PaLn)
(Map 11, Fig. 21)

This has foliage much like Sabal minor, but a short thick erect
trunk thickly covered with long sharp erect spines, whence its
name. ‘The flowers and fruit must be very rare, for I have never
seen them.

Around Evergreen twenty years ago this palm was being
exterminated by the evergreen shippers, who dug up “crowns” of
it (1. e., the bunch of leaves without roots), stuck them in pots
or vases, and shipped them north to decorate the homes of rich
people for a few days or weeks and then wither. (I could not
find any of it there in the spring of 1927.) It is occasionally cul-
tivated for ornament, in Montgomery and elsewhere.

It grows in rich damp, especially calcareous, woods in the
southern half of the state, sometimes with Sabal minor, but usually

82 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

farther from streams. It is rather rare, and the only locality
known to Dr. Mohr was the first one listed below.

5 (or 6A). Found a few miles south of Auburn by F. §. Earle.

6C (?). In A. H. Howell’s “Biological Survey of Alabama” (North
American Fauna No. 45, 1921) there is an illustration (plate 7, fig. 2)
entitled “River bottom swamp near Seale. Undergrowth of palmetto (Sabal
minus) in hardwood forest.” The palm in the picture looks more like
Rhapidophyllum than Sabal, and Mr. Howell informs me that the picture
was taken on Big Uchee Creek, about twelve miles northwest of Seale.

7. Bottoms of Big Swamp or Letohatchee Creek, Lowndes County.
Bottoms of Bughall Creek between Fitzpatrick and Thompson, Bullock
County. There it is quite common, and seems to be the only palm.

10E. Bluffs on Pea River near Elba, rare. Along Choctawhatchee
River in northern Henry County (Howell).

10W. Probably in Butler County, but exact locality unknown. (See
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:526-527. 1906.) Seen in bottoms of Sepulga
River near southwestern corner of that county, April 19, 1928. Common on
bluffs on west side of Alabama River near old Lisbon landing, Monroe
County. (Walter B. Jones, Sept., 1925). Rich woods near Limestone
Creek northeast of Claiborne.

11. Common in bottoms of Murder Creek near Evergreen, at least
in 1905.

LRILIAGCHKAER; ~ lie Paminy.

In the broadest sense this includes over 200 genera and 2,000
species, the great majority herbs, widely distributed over the earth.
But some authorities divide it into several families, and put our
woody representatives, and a few other genera, into the Dracae-
naceae, typified by Dracaena Draco, the dragon tree of the Canary
Islands, which yields a resin used in the arts, known as dragon’s
blood.

YUCCA, Linnaeus.

A common genus in the southwestern states and Mexico,
where some are tree-like, and conspicuous in the desert landscapes.
The southeastern species are rather few and small.

Yucca aloifolia, L. SPANISH BAYONET.

A plant of somewhat palm-like aspect, with simple upright
stems several feet tall, densely covered with rigid sharp-pointed
and saw-edged widely spreading evergreen leaves about a foot
long. Topped by a large cluster of tulip-like white flowers in
summer. A favorite ornamental plant in the warmer parts of the
United States, giving a semi-tropical but more or less forbidding
aspect to many a park and lawn, at least as far north as Tusca-
loosa.

LILTACKAE 83

Grows in drifting sands along the coast, and occasionally es-
capes from cultivation around old settlements in the interior of the
coastal plain, for example, along roadsides between Prairieville
and Faunsdale, near the line between Hale and Marengo Coun-
ties, in the black belt.

Yucca filamentosa, LL. BEAR-GRASS.

It is stretching the definition a little to call this a woody
plant, but it is about as much so as our palmettoes. It has rather
stiff evergreen leaves in a knee-high tuft, and a branched flower-
stalk in summer, often taller than a man.

It grows in a considerable variety of habitats, from sunny
old fields to shady bluffs (if it is all one species), but all have one
characteristic in common: they are well protected from fire. It
is nowhere abundant, however, and the following list includes all
its known natural habitats in the state. (It is liable to turn up
almost anywhere in old fields.)

1B. Rocky woods near Blount Springs.

2B. Common on shaly bluffs near rivers, especially in Tuscaloosa
County.

5. Seen from train once in Clay County. Common in northeastern
part of Chilton County.

11. On bluffs, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

SMILACACEAE. Smitax Famity.

Contains three genera and about 200 species, mostly
woody vines, in tropical and temperate regions. Mostly American.

SMILAX, Ll. GreENBRIER, BAMBOO VINE, ETC.

Mostly prickly woody vines, climbing by tendrils, some ever-
green and some not. ‘They have berries about the size of a buck-
shot, black in most species. Some of the species are ill-defined or
imperfectly understood, so that their number cannot be stated ex-
actly, but there seem to be eight or ten woody ones in Alabama.
Only six have been identified by the writer, but a reader who is
sufficiently interested can find some information about the rest
of them in Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama. Some of them are
cultivated for ornament or gathered for decorative purposes, and
a few have a limited use in medicine.

84 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Smilax glauca, Walt.

A low vine often rising only a foot or so above the ground
and running horizontally only a yard or so, but occasionally climb-
ing into bushes. Easily recognized by its pale leaves, which are
almost white beneath. Apparently native in dry open woods, but
seen oftenest in old fields that have been abandoned a few years,
and occasionally even in cultivated fields. More tolerant of fire
than almost any other vine. On account of its weedy tendencies
I have not made very full notes on it; but the following records
will give some idea of its wide distribution.

2A. Morgan, Cullman and Marshall Counties.

ZB ot ela, County:

3. DeKalb, Calhoun and Jefferson Counties.

4. Clay County.

5. Doubtless common, at least in old fields, but I seem to have made
no note of it there.

6A. Fayette, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Hale County.

7. Hale, Dallas (?) and Lowndes Counties.

8. Dallas (?), Russell.

10E. Henry County.

10W. Monroe County.

Smilax rotundifolia, L.(CoMMON GREENBRIER of the North)

More than one species may have been confused with this, but
what I take to be it is a deciduous vine, growing in woods or bot-
toms, and often in thickets, along roadsides, and in other weedy
places, but always pretty well protected from fire.

It is common in the northern half of the state, except in the
Blue Ridge and central long-leaf pine hills, and is seen occasion-
ally in the black belt and post oak flatwoods. Definite records
farther south seem to be wanting.

Smilax auriculata, Walt. (S. Beyrichii, Kunth.)

An evergreen, climbing on bushes and small trees.

Common on old dunes with dazzling white sand, near Orange
3each, Baldwin County. Reported by Dr. Mohr from _ the
| Mobile?| bay shore of the same county, and the foot of Spring
Hill in Mobile County.

SMILACAEAE 8

ur

Smilax laurifolia, L. 3AMBOO VINE.

A smooth vine with comparatively few prickles and_ thick
evergreen leaves, which are usually narrow and stand erect, so as
to present only a small surface to the mid-day sun. Often climbs
trees of considerable height. It can be used for decorative pur-
poses, but the leaves turn brown in a few days.

Grows in sandy bogs and wet woods with sour soil ; practically
confined to those parts of the state where less than 5% of the area
was cultivated in cotton in 1880, according to Dr. Smith’s map in
the 6th volume of the Tenth Census (map 2 of this work). (This
probably holds true also in other states.) Its known distribution
by regions is as follows:

2A. “Along Little River on Lookout Mountain. (See Torreya 6:114.
1906.)

4. Along branches on southeast slope of Blue Ridge in Clay County.
(See Torreya 10:219-221. 1910.)

5. Rather rare. Randolph, Tallapoosa, Elmore and Chilton Counties.

6A. Common from Franklin County southeastward.

6B. Common in Chilton and Autauga Counties, and probably else-
where.

6C. Occasional.

7 (or 8?). Southern Dallas County.

8. Pike and Barbour Counties.

10E, 10W. Frequent.

11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Common.

13. Abundant throughout.

Smilax Walteri, Pursh.

A deciduous vine, with bright red berries which hang on all
winter, and therefore make it desirable for decorative purposes.
Grows in swamps, with more fertile soil than those favored

by S. laurifolia. Confined to the coastal plain, or nearly so.

6A. Elmore County.

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Pickens County.

10E. Henry County.

11. Suggsville and Clarke Counties (Denny).

12. Covington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

11 or 13. Abundant along Murder Creek above Kirkland.
13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties.

14. Baldwin County.

Smilax lanceolata, L. WILD SMILAX OR BAMBOO

A neat evergreen vine with few or no prickles, climbing on
trees. Its leaves keep their shape and color pretty well for a few

86 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

weeks after the stem is cut, and this makes it very desirable for
decorative purposes. ‘The berries are greenish or slightly tinged
with red when ripe, but are not found on every vine every year,
so that they do not add much to its appearance.

This might be called the vine that made Evergreen famous.
It was first shipped from there to northern markets by G. W.
Caldwell about 1888*, and large quantities have been shipped from
there and other places in southern Alabama since, so that the natu-
ral supply must be considerably depleted by this time. But as it
grows readily on various trees that spring up in fence-corners, it
is not likely to be exterminated very soon. In addition to its
decorative value it might be useful in a small way for stock feed,
for Mr. Caldwell found that cows were very fond of the scraps left
over when the vines were prepared for shipment.

It is almost confined to the coastal plain, in ravines, ham-

mocks, bluffs, fence-rows, and other places protected from fire.

2B. Ravines and bluffs near Warrior River a few miles above Tus-
caloosa.

3. Along Pratt’s Creek, Bibb County, and near Pelham, Shelby County
(if I have identified it correctly from the train).

5. Within a few miles of the Coosa River in Coosa and Elmore
Counties.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6C. Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Sumter, Dallas, Montgomery, Bullock.

8. Crenshaw, Pike, Barbour.

9. Along Alamuchee Creek near York.

10E. Barbour, Pike, Coffee.

10W. Wilcox, Choctaw, Clarke.

11. Along Murder Creek near Evergreen.

13 (2). Mobile County (Mohr).

Up to this point we have been dealing with coniferous (gym-
nospermous) trees and endogenous (monocotyledonous) canes,
palms, vines, etc.; and it happens that the majority of them are
evergreen. The remainder of the list consists of exogenous (dico-
tyledonous) angiosperms, most of which, in this state, are de-
ciduous. The trees of this class are commonly known as hard-
woods, although some of them have wood that is softer (and
lighter ) than that of’ some of the pines.

*See Caldwell in bibliography.

JUGLANDACEAE 87
JUGLANDACEAE.. Watnut Famity.

Includes 6 genera and about 35 species, all trees with com-
pound deciduous leaves, mostly North American. Many are use-
ful for their wood or nuts, or both.

JUGLANS, L. THE Watnuts.
Juglans nigra, L. BLACK WALNUT.

A well-known large or medium-sized tree, with dark brown
heart-wood. Until it became too scarce it was the favorite ma-
terial for cabinet-making and furniture of all kinds in the eastern
United States. After the period of solid walnut furniture came
that of walnut-veneered furniture, but even that is not common
now. During the World War there was a great demand for wal-
nut for gunstocks, and many isolated roadside and farm-yard trees
were located with the aid of the Boy Scouts and sold to the gun
factories. ‘The wood is durable as well as handsome and easily
worked, and when it was abundant it was used for crossties, posts,
etc., and probably also for fence-rails. Its present use is mostly
for sewing machines and musical instruments. Some is exported
to Europe in the form of logs.

The walnut blooms in spring, just before the leaves unfold.
The large oily nuts make very good eating, and enter into com-
merce in a small way in country towns. They are also used in
confectionery. Their hulls were formerly used extensively for
dyeing homespun cloth. The tree is often planted around houses
in town and country, partly for shade and partly for the sake of

its nuts.

References: Brush 2, Wheeler; also U. S. Forest Service Cir-
cular 88 (1907).

It grows naturally in rich woods and bottoms, in soils well
supplied with lime or potash, or both, but can be cultivated in soils
below the average in fertility, and is often seen along roadsides
outside of its natural range. On account of its preference for rich
soils, vast quantities must have been destroyed in clearing land in
the pioneer days, and the present stand must be only a fraction of
the original. Its known natural distribution in Alabama is about
as follows:

88 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

1B. Fairly common in rich woods and on limestone outcrops, making
perhaps one percent of the forest at the present time.

2B. Rich woods about two miles west of Oakman, Walker County.

3. Frequent in rich woods or around limestone outcrops in most of the
counties, but not abundant. Makes less than one percent of the present
torest.

7. Said by Dr. Mohr to have once been common in the black belt,
but I have noted it in only a few places, such as near House Bluff, Marion
Junction and in Macon County. Prof. Cocks reported it from Dallas
County.

8. Between Minters and Snow Hill station, in Dallas or Wilcox
County.

10W. Rich calcareous woods in northeastern Wilcox County.

11. Rich calcareous woods near Suggsville and Salt Creek, Clarke
County.

Juglans cinerea, L. Waite WALNUT, OR BUTTERNUT.

A tree very similar to the preceding, except that the wood is
paler, the fruit is oblong instead of spherical, and the leaves and
hulls are sticky.

The inner bark of the root has cathartic properties, and it is
also used for dyeing. The nuts are edible, and in the North they
are sometimes made into pickles while young and soft. The tree
is often planted for ornament, like the preceding.

This grows in much the same sort of soils as the black walnut,
but is much rarer in Alabama, its center of distribution being
farther north. Dr. Mohr reports it as having been found in Lime-
stone County by Dr. Smith and in Winston County by himself, and
I have seen what I took to be it once or twice in Blount.

HICORIA, Raf. (Carya, Nutt.) THe Hickor:rs AND PECANS.

Trees, with alternate compound deciduous leaves. About a
dozen species and several varieties have been reported from Ala-
bama, but some of them are still imperfectly understood, and not
easily identified. As a group they are among our commonest
trees, one or more of them being found in every region, on a
considerable variety of soils, but rather avoiding the richest and
poorest. The flowers come out with the leaves in spring, and
the nuts ripen in the fall of the same year.

Nearly all the hickories have tough elastic wood, useful for
spokes, handles, hoops, buggy shafts, golf sticks, ladder rounds,
bows and arrows, whips, etc. It is seldom sawed into lumber, but
it makes good fuel, and the smoke of the wood (often made from
sawdust) is used for smoking meat. Most of the species have

JUGLANDACEAE 89

Fic. 22. Two pecan trees, supposed to be remnants of the original
forest, in dark brown clay soil in the black belt, about half way between
Marion and Uniontown, Perry County. September 25, 1924. The largest
one had a trunk 38 inches in diameter. The other one had been struck by
lightning not long before.

Fic. 23. Supposed native pecan trees in Walker’s Bottom, about two
and one-half miles west of Uniontown, in Marengo County, with a fallen
trunk of same species about four feet in diameter in the foreground. Sep-
tember 25, 1924.

90 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

edible nuts. For notes on other economic properties see C. F.
Hatch in bibliography.

The following species are the most easily recognized in Ala-
bama. Information about a few others can be found in Mohr’s
Plant Life, and in manuals of North American trees or of south-
eastern plants.

Hicoria Pecan (Marsh.) Britton. (Carya olivaeformis, Nutt.)
PECAN.

(Figs. 22, 23)

Chiefly noted for its edible nuts, of which several varieties
have been developed in cultivation. (See “Nut culture in the
United States”, a 144-page illustrated report published by the
Division of Pomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in
1896, and the paper by Dr. R. H. True cited in the bibliography
of the present report.) A few wild hybrids between this and
regular hickories have been reported.

The principal distribution of this species is from Indiana to
Iowa and ‘Texas, in alluvial soils, and it is rare or unknown in the
wild state even in Tennessee and Mississippi. But there are a
few old trees with rather small nuts in calcareous soils in the black
belt north and west of Uniontown, which are said to have been
there when the first settlers came, and are therefore presumably
indigenous.* (Dr. Mohr reported it from near Demopolis, Gallion
and Uniontown, all in the black belt.) ‘That sounds reasonable, but
it is difficult to get any other evidence on the subject, for the trees
are now standing in fields, and all their original associates have
been destroyed. It is cultivated in the same neighborhood, and in
many other parts of the state.

Hicoria myristicaeformis (Mx.) Britton. (Nutmec HicKory)

The nuts of this tree are not considered edible, but its wood is
probably as good as that of other hickories. It is too rare to be of
any economic importance, though.

*See Mohr 15 in bibliography, also pages 100-101 and 462 of his Plant
Life of Alabama. The writer visited some of these trees in company with
the state forester in September, 1924, when the accompanying pictures were
taken.

JUGLANDACEAE 91

Dr. Mohr found this associated with the pecan near Demopo-
lis, Gallion and Uniontown, and also on the Alabama River in
Dallas County,* but nowhere else in the state. (See Mohr 15 in
bibliography.) I have seen a few trees near Gallion and Barachias.
All the known stations in Alabama are in the black belt.

Hicoria cordiformis (Wang.) Britton (H. minima ( Marsh.)
Britton, Carya amara, Nutt.)

A large or medium-sized tree, growing mostly along rivers.
Wood of little use except for fuel. Nuts bitter.

Reported by Dr. Mohr from Montgomery County and else-
where in the central parts of the state, and by Prof. Cocks from
Dallas County.

Hicoria aquatica (Mx. f.) Britton. (Swamp Hickory)

A tree with leaves much like those of the pecan, bark resem-
bling that of an elm, and flattish thin-shelled inedible nuts. It is
hardly abundant enough to be of interest to wood manufacturers.

Grows in swamps of creeks and rivers, mostly in the coastal
plain. Along Cotaco Creek (apparently in region 1C) in Morgan
County, and along the Warrior-Tombigbee system from Tusca-
loosa County to the upper part of the Mobile delta. Most frequent
in the black belt and lime hills. Not yet noticed in regions 9, 10 E,
12 or 13.

Hicoria ovata ( Mill.) Britton. (Carya alba, Nutt.)
SCALY-BARK HICKORY.

A large or medium-sized tree, with bark peeling off in long
stiff flakes, and perhaps the best nuts of any of our hickories
proper. The wood is used for all the purposes previously men-
tioned under the genus. The bark and leaves have some medicinal
properties, but are not officinal.

Grows mostly in clayey and calcareous soils. (One or two
other species may have been confused with it in the following
statement of distribution. )

1A. Near Hays Mill, Limestone County.

1B. Frequent in rich woods and on limestone outcrops, making per-
haps 3% of the present forest.

1C. Weeden Mountain, Madison County, and Little Mountain, Law-
rence County.

*Garden & Forest, 3:24. Jan. 8, 1890.

92 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. Fairly common in most of the counties, making about 1% of the
forest.

6A. Marion and Chilton Counties; rare.

6C. Near Alabama River, Montgomery County.

7. Rich woods and bottoms; frequent.

8. Near Ramer, Montgomery County.

9. Creek bottoms.

10W. Butler, Wilcox, Choctaw, Clarke, and probably other counties.

A variety (pubescens, Sarg.) is said by the author to grow near Val-
ley Head, DeKalb County.
Hicoria alba (L.) Britton. (Carya tomentosa, Nutt.)
(Wauirr) Hickory.

Wood similar to that of the preceding, but the nuts are not
quite so good, having a little more shell and less meat in propor-
tion.

Grows in dry and moderately rich (especially ferruginous )
soils, in every region except 14 and 15. Scarce in 7, 8 and 13, but
constitutes from one to two per cent of the forest in most of the
others.

A variety (subcoriacea, Sarg.) is reported from Dallas
County (Cocks).

Hicoria glabra ( Mill.) Britton. (Carya porcina, Nutt.)
(PicNut) Hickory.

The wood of this is said to be the best of all the hickories, but
the nuts are usually bitter and not eaten much except by squirrels.
Like most of the other species, it is offered for sale by nurserymen
for ornamental purposes.

Grows in dry woods, in soils apparently averaging a_ little
poorer and less ferruginous than the preceding. It is not easily
recognized from a train, so that my notes on it are not very com-
plete (and I may have sometimes confused one or two other species
with it), but it appears to be less abundant than H. alba. Its
known distribution in the state is about as follows:

1B. On sandstone and chert on Smithers Mountain, Madison County.
2A. Cherokee, Blount, and St. Clair Counties.

2B. St. Clair and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. DeKalb, St. Clair and Jefferson Counties.

4. Rather common.

5. Coosa County (and probably all the others).

6A. Franklin County to Bibb, and perhaps throughout.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Hale Counties.

7. Greene County (if identified correctly).

10E. Pike and Barbour Counties.

LANDACEAE

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24. Trunk of Hicoria ovalis

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94 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

11. Near Silas, Choctaw County.
13. Near Andalusia.
15. Near Fairhope and Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Two varieties have been credited to the southern part of the state.

Hicoria ovalis (Wang.) Sudw. (7) (H. microcarpa (Nutt.)
Britton)

(Figs. 24-26)

A hickory which does not seem to fit any existing description
exactly, but is referred tentatively to this species, is pretty widely
distributed, though not abundant. It is a medium-sized tree with
rough furrowed bark, leaves with usually five leaflets (occasion-
ally seven, three or one), and small nuts with a thin husk splitting
to the base, with one valve of the husk always wider than the
others, and the opposite one correspondingly narrower.

Its favorite habitat seems to be dry cherty ridges. I have
seen it in Lauderdale County near Florence, on top of Bean Moun-
tain in Morgan County, on the slopes of Lookout Mountain near
Valley Head (often with 7 leaflets), on Warnock Mountain,
Blount County, on ridges a few miles from Bessemer, and in Coosa,
Bibb and Montgomery Counties; and also apparently the same
thing in Nassau County (Long Island), New York.

Two varieties are credited to the central and northern parts
of the state by Prof. Sargent.

Other species of Hicoria which have been reported from Ala-
bama, but not yet identified by the writer, are as follows:

FT. Carolinae-septentrionalis, Ashe. (One of the scaly-barks.) Re-
ported from Morgan and Cullman Counties by Mohr, and
from Dallas County by Cocks. A variety (australis, Ashe)
is said to grow near Montgomery.

FH. laciniosa (Mx.{.) Sarg. (A scaly-bark with large nuts.) River
banks in Dallas County (Cocks). oy

H. pallida, Ashe. Said to be common in dry soils in the central
parts of the state. DeKalb County to Henry County (Mohr).
Dallas County (Cocks).

HT. Ashei Sudw. Said by its author to grow “‘in the coastal re-
gions” from Alabama to South Florida.

JUGLANDACEAE 95

Fic. 25. Leaves and nuts of Hicaria ovalis (?), from the same locality

as the preceding figure, collected October 5, 1912, and photographed later

in the same month, against a background ruled in inch squares.

96 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 26. Twigs and nuts of same, with leaves removed to show buds,
on same background.

MY RICACEAE 97

MYRICACEAE. Bayserry FAMILY.

Includes two or three genera and about 50 species, mostly
shrubs growing in temperate regions, and of little economic im-
portance.

MYRICA, L. Bavyeerriks on Wax Myrt es.
(Map 12)

Our species are regarded by some authorities as distinct from
the typical A/yrica of higher latitudes, and the generic names
Morella and Cerothamnus have been proposed for them. They are
shrubs or small trees, evergreen with us (but one of them deciduous
farther north), with inconspicuous flowers in small clusters on the
branches below the leaves in spring, producing small hard wax-
coated berries in fall. ‘The wax can be removed by (soft) boiling
water, and it was used largely for making candles before the days
of petroleum products. Our species are all called “myrtle,” when
they are given any common name at all, though they are very dif-
ferent from the classical myrtle of the Old World.

Myrica cerifera, LL.

An aromatic shrub or small tree, with leaning or crooked
trunk branching low down, dark yellowish green toothed leaves,
much reduced in size (and yellower) toward the ends of the
twigs. Said by Dr. Mohr to grow a foot in diameter and 30 or 40
feet tall near the coast; but it is usually no higher than a man’s
head, and only a few inches in diameter. The leaves, and the bark
of the root, have astringent properties, and the wax has a limited
use in medicine, and is said to have been used for making soap
and candles. The plant is occasionally cultivated for ornament,
particularly along walks and borders. (A good deal of it was so
used on the grounds of the Jamestown Exposition, near Norfolk,
Va., in 1907.)

Strictly confined to the coastal plain, in moderately rich and
often damp soils, protected from fire, as in hammocks and on
bluffs and borders of swamps.

6A. Along the M. & O. R. R. at several places in Bibb County south-
east of Centerville, particularly between Trio and Maud. Grows especially
around cuts and gullies in grayish purple clay, where it has a somewhat
weedy appearance.

98 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

MAP e+ ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

MYRICA CERIFERA (shading)
AND INLAND LIMITS OF
OUR THREE OTHER SPECIES

Map 12. Distribution of our four species of Myrica. The ring in the
southern part of Macon County belongs to MM. pumila.

.
MY RICACEAE 99

6C. Occasional in Pickens, Greene and Hale Counties.

6C or 7. House Bluff, Autauga County.

7. Near Lake’ Bend on Warrior River in Greene County, about twenty
miles above Demopolis, and near Bogue Chitto, Dallas County. Reported
from Dallas County by Cocks and from Montgomery County by Mohr.

8. Crenshaw County and eastward.

10E. Frequent.

10W. Common.

11, 12. Common.

13. Frequent.

14. Near Magazine Point, Mobile County

15. Near Fairhope and Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Myrica pumila (Mx.) Small. (1. cerifera, var. pumila, Mx.)

To be absolutely consistent one should perhaps treat this as a
variety of the preceding, as was done nearly throughout the 19th
century ; but it is more convenient to call it a separate species. It
differs from M. cerifera in being smaller, usually not more than
knee-high, and having a large subterranean stem, which enables
it to shoot up again after the parts above ground are killed by fire,
—a frequent occurrence in most of the places where it grows.

The berries are so small that it is probable that little or no
wax has ever been made from them; but in Baldwin County I have
been told that the dried bark of the root is sometimes used as a
remedy for toothache and neuralgia.

Grows in sandy soil, dry or damp, in Alabama usually in open
forests of long-leaf pine. (In Louisiana and Texas it is common
in some parts of the coast prairies, away from all trees. )

Dr. Mohr reported it from Cullman and Autauga Counties,
wut those are remote from the present known stations, and it is
dossible that he mistook M. Carolinensis for it. It seems to be
chiefly confined to the lower parts of the coastal plain. (See
map. )

7. Flat pine woods (Pinus Tacda) about a mile west of Fort Davis
Macon County.

10W. Near Bolling, Butler County.

12. Washington, Covington and Houston Counties.

13. Common nearly throughout.

Myrica Carolinensis, Mill.

Differs from MW. cerifera in never becoming a tree, and having
paler leaves (never yellowish), which are not reduced in size at
the ends of the twigs. It was pretty generally confused with M.

100 ® ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

cerifera until about three decades ago,* but it is perfectly distinct.
It is deciduous northward, but evergreen in Alabama. ‘This is the
principal source of bayberry wax, especially on Long Island and
Cape Cod, where it is more abundant than with us. It is occas-
ionally cultivated for ornament.

Grows in wet woods and sandy bogs, mostly where less than
one per cent of the area was cultivated in cotton in 1880.7

2A. Marshall, Etowah and St. Clair Counties.

2B. Rare along Mill Creek, Jefferson County. Near North Alabama
Junction and Eight-Acre Rock, Tuscaloosa County.

3. Damp pine woods northeast of Center, Cherokee County.

4. Damp ravines in the mountains, Clay County. Some five feet tall.

6A. Marion, Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Autauga Counties.

10W. A few miles northeast of Camden, and in northern part of Choc-
taw County.

12. Near Dothan.

13. Fairly common.

Myrica inodora, Bartram.

Resembles J. Carolinensis somewhat, but grows larger—
sometimes almost a tree—and has smoother leaves, which are odor-
less or nearly so, as the name implies. William Bartram, who
discovered it in the northern part of Baldwin County about 150
years ago, found the people there making candles from its wax.

It grows in sour-branch-swamps, etc., and seems to be con-
fined to the southern pine hills, from Middle Florida to southern
Mississippi, where late summer is the rainy season. Within its
limited range it is not at all rare, and I have seen it in Mobile,
Baldwin and Escambia Counties, and perhaps also in Washington
and Covington. Dr. Mohr found it near Mobile and Stockton.

SALICACEAE. WILtLow Famity.

Two genera and about 200 species, trees and shrubs, mostly
in the cooler parts of the north temperate zone. Some are used for
lumber, basket-making, etc., and some are cultivated for shade
or ornament.

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 34:374. 1907.

7For notes on its occurrence outside of the coastal plain see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club, 33:528-529. 1906; Torreya, 10:221. 1910.

SALICACEAE 101

SALIX, L. THE Witows.

Salix nigra, Marshall. (Common, or Brack) WILLow.

A small to medium-sized tree, with trunk usually inclined
a little from the vertical, especially if growing on the bank of a
stream. Blooms in March, and ripens its feathery seeds about a
month later.

The tree is sometimes planted, especially along roadsides in
damp ground. The twigs of this and other willows are often
bound together in huge raft-like mats and weighted down with
rocks to protect river-banks from erosion where such measures
are desirable. The wood is light, soft, and easily split, and is
used to some extent for boxes, crates, and excelsior, but the tree
is usually too small for saw-logs. Charcoal from it has been used
in the manufacture of gunpowder. The bark contains salicylic
acid, and has febrifugal and antipyritic properties. The flowers
also have some medicinal value.

This willow grows along streams of all sizes, and in other
damp places, and seems to tolerate any amount of seasonal fluctua-
tion of water. It seems to like potash and lime, but has little need
of nitrogen or humus. Just what its reaction would be to fire is
not known, for the places in which it grows are pretty well pro-
tected from fire. It is often the first tree to take possession of
new mud flats (either natural or artificial) and sand-bars. It be-
haves something like a weed, springing up along gullies and ditches
in cultivated fields, and on mud flats made by washings from
brown iron ore mines. It is the commonest tree along most of our
rivers, especially on the soft banks on the inner sides of bends.
Sometimes a steep bank on which it grows caves in and carries the
roots of the willows several feet below the water-level, and in that
case they are soon drowned, though the whole tree might be sub-
merged for a few days by a flood without apparent injury. Prob-
ably most of the willows in the state at the present time are small
trees not over ten or fifteen feet tall, growing in places which
have been modified by civilization.

It is common in every region except 1A, 1C, 2A, 4 and 15,
and probably grows in every county.

102 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Salix humilis, Marshall. (DwarF) WILLow.

The shrubby willows, so common and perplexing in the glac-
iated regions of the United States, are rather rare in Alabama, and
probably most of those in the state are referable to this species.
The flower-buds, which appear long before the leaves in earliest
spring, are covered with silky down and somewhat resemble a kit-
ten’s paw, for which reason they are commonly called “‘pussy wil-
lows” in the North.

The habitats of our shrubby willow (or willows) are hard to
classify, but the plants seem to prefer slightly damp places ex-
posed to the sun, and are often found in unnatural places like rail-
road rights-of-way and edges of fields. The following are the
recorded localities.

1A. Barrens of Lauderdale County (Mohr).

2B. Near South Lowell, Walker County.

3. West of Piedmont, Calhoun County (a locality where several
prairie plants have been seen from trains). Near Zuber, Talladega County.

4. Near Hollins, Clay County.

8. Barbour, Pike and Lowndes Counties.

10W. Dr. Mohr reports S. cordata Muhl. from the banks of Muscle
(Mussel?) Creek in Butler County.

A shrubby species which may be different from this grows on the steep
face of House Bluff on the Alabama River in Autauga County.

POPULUS, L. THE Porrtars (of the Old World). and
CorroNnwoops.

Populus deltoide(s), Marshall. CorroNnwoop.

The nomenclature of this is somewhat unsettled. It has been
called at various times P. monilifera, P. angulata, and P. Vir-
giniana, and Prof. Sargent claims that the name P. balsamifera L.,
long applied to the northern ‘Balm of Gilead” tree, belongs to this
species or a near relative of it. (Jour. Arnold Arboretum, 1 :62-63.
1919.) We may have more than one variety, but if so they all
look very much alike.

A tall tree, often two feet or more in diameter, with straight
erect trunk, and brownish furrowed bark. As in the case of its
cousin the common willow, the flower tassels appear in early
spring, and the seeds ripen a few weeks later. The wood is light
and soft, not much used in Alabama, but elsewhere converted into
paper pulp, light boxes, excelsior, and fuel. This species and its
varieties and hybrids are often planted for shade trees, but have

SALICACEKAE 103

little to recommend them except rapid growth. ‘Three varieties
of it are known to the horticultural trade, and two wild varieties
have been described. The “Carolina poplar” (P. Eugenei) is
believed to be a hybrid of European origin, between P. deltoides
and the Lombardy poplar (P. nigra Italica).

References: Williamson.

Grows on the banks of the large muddy rivers where they are
subject to considerable fluctuation, and also along creeks, branches
and ditches in calcareous regions. Its distribution by regions is
about as follows:

1B. Along the Tennessee River all the way across the state. Reid’s
Gap, Blount County (perhaps not native).

2B. Extends up the Warrior River a few miles above Tuscaloosa.

3. Along the Coosa River near Gadsden and the Cahaba in Bibb
County.

6A. Along the Warrior, Cahaba and Tallapoosa Rivers.

6C. Common on the Alabama River, less so on the Warrior.
P 7. Common on rivers and creeks and even along ditches between
ields.

8. Nearly as common as in the black belt, in similar situations.

9. On rivers and creeks. Sumter, Marengo and Wilcox Counties.

10E. On Conecuh and Pea Rivers, Pike County.

10W. Common on rivers and larger creeks, and occasionally along
small creeks and ditches.

11. Frequent along rivers and creeks.

14. Upper part of the delta.

Populus heterophylla, L.

A smaller tree than the preceding, not large or abundant
enough in Alabama to be of any importance.

Dr. Mohr reported this from Montgomery and Clarke Coun-
ties, and Prof. Cocks reported two or three trees in Dallas County,
but I have seen it in Alabama only in the lower part of the Mobile
delta, where it is common but not abundant. (It also grows in
similar situations along the Apalachicola River in Florida.)

Populus alba, L. (EUROPEAN) WHITE Poptar.

A small to medium-sized tree, with whitish bark covered with
something that rubs off like chalk, and small coarsely toothed
leaves dark green above and white-downy beneath.

A native of Europe, cultivated for ornament and shade, but
not very desirable because it sends up suckers from the roots. Runs
wild in the northern parts of the state, and near Tuscaloosa,
Mobile, and doubtless other places.

104 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

CORYLACEAE. HaAz&EL-NuT FAMILY.

Includes four genera and about 50 species, trees and shrubs,
mostly in the north temperate zone.

CARPINUS, Linnaeus.

Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt. TRON WOOD.

A small tree, rarely more than a foot in diameter and 30
feet tall,* with trunk somewhat fluted—never perfectly round—
and smooth grayish bark a little darker than that of the beech.
Blooms in spring, just before the leaves unfold. The wood is
heavier than water when green, but is seldom used for anything in
Alabama. Elsewhere it is sometimes made into tool-handles, etc.
The tree is said to be good for border screens and tall hedges.

Grows mostly in creek bottoms. Rare in region 2A, and
apparently wanting in 13, 14 and 15, but common elsewhere.

OSTRYA, Scopoli.
Ostrya Virginiana ( Mill.) Willd. (Hop HornBEAM).

Very similar to the preceding in size, leaves, flowers, and time
of blooming, but has a brown finely furrowed and somewhat fib-
rous bark, and a fruit something like hops.

This makes a good ornamental tree, and is occasionally planted
in parks, etc. ‘The wood is heavy, strong and durable, much like
hickory, and is used in some places for posts, levers, cogs, wedges,
handles, and the like. The bark is sometimes used medicinally,
though not officinal.

Grows naturally on bluffs and in ravines and hammocks,
where it is pretty well protected from fire. Common in regions
2B, 10W and 11, and frequent in most of the others, but in 13
known only from near the Conecuh River southeast of Brewton,
and rare or wanting in 4, 6B, 8, 9, 14 and 15.

CORYLUS, L. Tue Hazet-nuts (Filberts of Europe)

The only nut-bearing shrubs in our flora, except one or two
chinquapins and oaks. Both the American species, C. Americana

*T have seen a tree 15 inches in diameter on the Sipsey River near
Fayette, and one about 40 feet tall at Meriweather’s Landing on the Warrior
River in Greene County.

CORYLACEAE 105

Walt. and C. rostrata Ait., occur in Alabama, and they are per-
fectly distinct, but hard to tell apart without the fruit, which can
be seen only in late summer and fall, and is rare with us, so that I
have never seen any in this state. The shrubs are sometimes
planted for borders and hedges, and their nuts are quite a delicacy.

The hazel-nuts grow in dry or moderately rich woods, not
often burned over, and are apparently confined to the hill country.
In the followi-g statement of local distribution the two species are
combined, on account of the difficulty of distinguishing them; but
C. rostrata 1s probably the commoner of the two.

1A. Dry woods northwest of Florence. (C. Americana’).

2A. Near Albertvilie and Cullman (C. Americana?), and common on
Lookout Mountain near Mentone. (C. rostrata?). Roadsides in Blount
County northeast of Bangor.

2B. Tuscaloosa County (FE. A. Smith). (C. rostrata?).

3. Near Pratt’s Ferry, Bibb County.

5. Cleburne (EK. A. Smith, C. Americana), Clay, Randolph (Mohr)
and Tallapoosa Counties. (C. rostrata?).

BETULACEAE. BrircuH FamIty.

Two genera and about 100 species, trees and shrubs, mostly
in the north temperate zone.

BETULA, Linnaeus. Tue BrrcHeEs.

Betula nigra, L. (COMMON, RED, OR RIVER) BIRCH.

A medium-sized tree, with trunk seldom more than two feet
in diameter, usually leaning toward the water. Bark peeling off in
shaggy flakes with horizontal grain, but not in large enough pieces
to make canoes and fancy articles out of like the northern paper
birch. The flower tassels appear before the leaves in spring, and
the seeds ripen in a few weeks, as in the case of the willows and
cottonwoods.

This species is sometimes cultivated in parks and lawns. Very
little of the wood is cut in Alabama, but it is used in some places
for furniture, crates, ox-yokes, pump-handles and hoops, and it
makes good fuel, like most other hardwoods.

References: Maxwell.

Grows along rivers and creeks, like the willow, but it is not
usually as abundant as that, or found on such small streams.
Common throughout the state outside of the principal long-leaf
pine regions. Rare or absent in regions 4 and 6B, in 12 known

106 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

only from the Choctawhatchee River near Geneva (but to be ex-
pected also on the Pea and Chattahoochee), and in 13 from Burnt
Corn Creek and the Conecuh River near Brewton.

Betula lenta, L. (CHERRY, OR BLack) Bircw.

In Alabama usually a small tree, scarcely more than a shrub,
but Mr. Harbison found it growing to considerable size in a gorge
in Jackson County. Farther north, where it is commoner and
larger, the wood is used for furniture and various other purposes.
An oil, similar to if not identical with oil of wintergreen, is dis-
tilled from the bark and twigs, in the mountains of North Carolina
and elsewhere, and a kind of beer is said to have been made from
the fermented sap of the tree. This species is also cultivated to
some extent for ornament.

This species seems to grow only in places pretty well protected
from fire. In Alabama it is found mostly on sandstone cliffs at
tops of mountains.

2A. “Winston County, rocky banks of Sipsey Fork, 1,600 feet”* above
sea-level (Mohr). Gorge on northwest side of Sand Mountain near Pis-
gah, Jackson County (Harbison). Northern brow of Chandler Mountain,
St. Clair County.

4. Rocky summits of the Blue Ridge, Cleburne, Clay and Talladega -
Counties.

ALNUS, Gaertner. THE ALDERS.

Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Koch. (A. serrulata, Ait.)
(Common) ALDER.

A common large deciduous shrub, blooming in January and
February, being one of our earliest spring flowers. The stems are
sometimes three or four inches in diameter, and have been used
for fuel and charcoal. The bark has astringent properties, and is
sometimes used in dyeing, and for diarrhoea and impurities of the
blood. ‘The shrub is recommended for planting along streams on
private estates, and can be bought from some northern nursery-
men.

Grows mostly along branches and creeks, not much along
rivers except where they are small and do not fluctuate much, or
where spring water seeps out along their banks. It is probably

*This altitude seems to be considerably exaggerated. but there are no
topographic maps of Winston County yet, except the extreme southern edge.

BETULACEAE 107

the commonest shrub in the state. It seems to avoid the richest
and poorest soils, and extremes of lime, mud and sand. It is rare
in regions 1A and 1B, and not recorded from 9, 14 and 15. Ona
trip down the Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers from Tusculoosa to
Jackson in 1908 I did not see it at all after passing out of the
Cretaceous regions. (See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37:117. 1910.)

CUPULIFERAE (or FAGACEAE). Oak Famity.

About 6 genera and 600 species, mostly trees, and mostly in
the north temperate zone. Chiefly valuable for their wood, but
some have edible nuts, and some yield dye, tanning materials, cork,
etc., and many are cultivated for shade or ornament.

FAGUS, Linnaeus. THE BEECHES.
Fagus grandifolia, Ehrh. (F. ferruginea Ait., F. Americana
Sweet, F. atropunicea Sudw. ) (AMERICAN) BEECH.

(Fig. 27)

(Our tree is supposed to differ a little from the northern one,
and it has been named var. Caroliniana by Fernald and Rehder, but
the supposed differences are not conspicuous. )

A well-known medium-sized to large tree, with trunk strictly
erect, and often two or three feet in diameter. The bark is smooth
and gray, never furrowed, and near towns it is often hard to find
trees without initials cut in them. It makes a fine lawn and park
tree, and some of the largest specimens are found around old
country estates. The wood is hard and strong, but difficult to
season and not very durable, so that its uses are limited. It is
very little used in Alabama, but elsewhere it is said to be used for
boxes, wheelbarrows, pump-handles, saw handles, brush handles,
chairs, planes, bobbins, clothes-pins, faucets, blocks for half-tone
plates, mouse-traps, shoe-lasts, and sometimes flooring. ‘The bark
and leaves are medicinal, but not officinal. The bark has also been
used to some extent for tanning. The nuts are edible, but in most
years the greater part of the crop seems to be sterile and empty.
An oil can be extracted from them.

References: Maxwell.

The beech grows in ravines, hammocks, bluffs and bottoms,
mostly in non-calcareous soil, protected from fire, and nearly al-
ways in virgin forests with plenty of humus. Its exact habitat

108 ECONOMIC BOTANY: OF ALABAMA

Fic. 27. Beech forest in bottoms of Flint Creek about three miles
north of Hartselle, Morgan County. March 13, 1913. (The large tree in
the center is a sweet gum.)

preferences are not fully understood yet, but it seems likely that
certain conditions of the soil fauna and flora are essential, perhaps
the absence of earthworms and the presence of certain fungi. It
is found in every region except 14 and 15, but is rare in 4, 6B and
13. It is probably most abundant in 2B, where it may make up as
much as 3% of the forest.

CASTANEA, Adanson. THE CHESTNUTS AND CHINQUAPINS.

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh. (C. Americana (Mx.) Raf.)
CHESTNUT.

One of our larger trees, and one of the few which blooms in
midsummer. Differs from most of those previously mentioned in
being pollinated by insects. Although not very abundant in Ala-
bama, this is one of our most useful trees. It is sometimes planted
for ornament and shade in lawns and parks. The wood is weak
and coarse-grained, but very durable, and therefore in demand for
telegraph poles, fence-rails and posts, and more rarely for crossties
and shingles. In some regions where it is abundant it has been
made into furniture and interior finish, but it seems to have no
special merit for those purposes except ease of working. It burns
well, but is not desirable for open fireplaces, because it is contin-

CUPULIFERAE 109

ually throwing off sparks. An extract from the wood has come
into use in recent years for tanning, and large quantities of chest-
nut are cut in the mountains of North Carolina for that purpose.
An infusion of the dried leaves has been used in the treatment of
whooping cough and similar ailments. The nuts are produced in
abundance, and constitute an important article of food, especially
for the small boy. (The European chestnut, which is not very
different from ours, is cultivated extensively in southern Europe
for its nuts, many of which are shipped to this country. )

References: Ashe 1. Also “Nut culture in the United
States,” referred to a few pages back, under Hicoria Pecan.

The chestnut grows in rather dry non-calcareous woods, espe-
cially on rocky slopes among the mountains. It seems to be mod-
erately tolerant of fire, but probably does not thrive where earth-
worms are present. It is nowhere abundant in Alabama, but was
doubtless more so originally. It has several enemies and diseases,
and perfectly sound trees are rare. There is abundant testimony
to the effect that it has been dying out all over the South for three-
quarters of a century or more. In northwestern Alabama its de-
cline is said by the inhabitants there to have begun with a late
freeze in May, 1854, which killed all the chestnut trees over con-
siderable areas.* In Georgia the beginning of the trouble has been
placed by some as far back as 1840, and in South Carolina even
earlier.t The dying of the chestnut in some parts of New York
and North Carolina has been ascribed to a fungus, Armillaria
mellea, which also attacks oaks; and the same thing may have
happened in Alabama. About 1905 a very virulent fungous disease

*B. L. C. Wailes, in a report on the geology of Mississippi, published
in 1854 (pp. 352, 354), stated that the chestnut ranged south to latitude 31°
in Marion County, but had become diseased and was rapidly dying out.
Miss Caroline Rumbold, in a communication entitled “A new record for a
chestnut tree disease in Mississippi” (Science II. 34:917. Dec. 29, 1911)
says Dr. E. W. Hilgard found all the chestnut trees in northeastern Missis-
sippi dead in 1856. (But the species must have come back to a consider-
able extent since then, for it is still found there.) Dr. A. W. Chapman, in
his Flora of the Southern United States, 1860, gave the range of this
species as “West Florida and northward”; but there seems to be now no
authentic record of its occurrence in a wild state within forty miles of
Florida. (Prof. Sargent, in his latest Manual of North American Trees,
extends its range to Crestview, Fla., but that record may have been based
on a cultivated or old field specimen.) For notes on the dying out of the
chestnut in Alabama see Mohr’s Plant Life, pp. 14 (footnote), 61, 70, 468.

+See H. Hammond, South Carolina (handbook), p. 146, 1883.

tSee W. H. Long, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 89. 1914.

110 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

of the chestnut (Endothia parasitica, chestnut canker) appeared in
New York City, and it has since spread out several hundred miles
from there, kining most of the trees in its path, but it does not
seem to have reached Alabama yet.$

Although the chestnut is now rather scarce in southern Ala-
bama, large solitary and fairly heaithy specimens of it in fields and
along roadsides are not uncommon in ihat part of the siate, and 1%
is difficult to decide whether they are remnants of the original
forest or have been pianted. The known distribution of native
trees 1s about as follows:

1A. Common on cherty hills near Tennessee River, in Lauderdale and
Colbert Counties.

1B. Cherty soils, Madison and Marshall Counties.

1C. Colbert and Lawrence Counties; not common. Near Johnson's
Landing, Morgan County.

2A. Frequent in most of the counties, making perhaps 2% of the forest,
especially eastward. Not common in Winston County.

2B. St. Clair, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties; rather rare.

3. Chert and sandstone ridges, Etowah, Jefferson, Shelby and Bibb
Counties.

4. Rather common throughout.

5. Cleburne, Randolph and Tallapoosa Counties; not common.

6A. Franklin, Fayette, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Hale Counties; rather
rare.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

6C. Hills near Prattville and McQueen, Autauga County.

7. Formerly common near Sardis, Dallas County (Cocks).

8. Along Chunnennuggee Ridge east of Union Springs.

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties; rare. Henry County (Sargent).

11(?). On north-facing escarpment at edge of pine hills a few miles
south of Monroeville, in about latitude 31° 30’.

§For notes on the chestnut canker and its effects see the following
papers:

H. Metcalf & J.-F. Collins. The present status of the chestnut bark
disease—U. S. Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. 141, part 5. Pp. 43-54, fig. 2,
pl. 4. 1909.

(Same). The control of the chestnut bark disease—U. S. Dept. Agric.,
Farmers’ Bull. 467. 24 pp., 4 figs. 1911.

(Same). The present known distribution of the chestnut bark disease.
—Science II. 35:420-421. March 15, 1912. (See also pp. 985-986 of the
same volume. )

Haven Metcalf. The chestnut bark disease—U. S. Dept. Agric., Year-
book 1912 :363-372, pl. 34-37. 1913.

A. H. Graves. The future of the chestnut tree in North America.—
Pop. Sci. Monthly, 84:551-566, 4 text-figs. June, 1914.

J. C. Nellis. Uses for chestnut timber killed by the bark disease.—
U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bull. 582. 24 pp., 8 figs. 1914.

E. R. Hodson. Is American chestnut developing immunity to the
blight ?—Jour. Forestry, 18:693-700. Nov. 1920. (Contains a short bibli-
ography. )

G. F. Gravatt & R. P. Marshall. Chestnut blight in the southern Ap-
palachians.—U. S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 370. 11 pp., 2 text-figs., 10 plates.
1926.

CUPULIFERAE 111

Castanea pumila (1.) Mill. CHINQUAPIN.

A large shrub or small tree, similar to the chestnut except in
size, and in having the leaves pale beneath. Blooms in May. Too
small and scattered to be of any value for its wood, but the nuts
are edible, like those of the chestnut. It may be subject to some of
the same diseases as the chestnut, for large healthy specimens are
rare.

Grows in dry woods; widely distributed over the state, but
nowhere common.

2A. On Lookout Mountain; rare.

2B. Near Holt, Tuscaloosa County.

4. Cedar Mountain, Clay County.

6A. Near Tuscaloosa.

6C. Greene, Perry, Autauga and Montgomery Counties.

7. Hatcher’s Bluff on Alabama River, Dallas County.

8. Russell County.

10K. Dale and Coffee Counties.

10W. Choctaw and Wilcox Counties.

11. Near Souwilpa, Choctaw County.

13. Near Stockton and Silver Hill, Baldwin County, and in north-
eastern part of Mobile County.

One or two other chinquapins, recently described, have been
credited to Alabama, but they are not well understood.

QUERCUS, Linnaeus. THE Oaks.

Alabama, like most other eastern states, has more species of
Quercus than of any other genus of trees (except Cratacgus, the
haws, and most of those are recently described and doubtfully
distinct, and too small to interest a forester.) About thirty species
and a few varieties and hybrids have been credited to this state,
but the number cannot be given exactly, because a few of them are
not easily distinguished, and there are differences of opinion about
them.

Most of our oaks are full-sized trees, large enough for saw
timber, but some are small and scrubby, and two or three shrubs.
Besides the true species several natural hybrids are known, these
being usually easily recognized by the fact that they are as a rule
solitary specimens growing in the immediate vicinity of the two
supposed parents and intermediate between them in nearly all
characters. No hybrids between the two great groups mentioned
in the next paragraph are known.

112 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

The oaks of eastern North America have been divided into
two large groups, which have been given the subgeneric names of
Leucobalanus (white oaks) and Melanobalanus (black oaks).
Those of the first group have pale soft bark (except Q. montana),
leaves usually with rounded lobes, and more or less edible acorns
maturing in one year; while the others are characterized by dark,
hard (usually rough) bark, less valuable wood, leaves with their
ends (and lobes, if any) bristle-tipped, and bitter acorns ripening
the second year.

The first group can be further divided into three sections, the
white and post oaks, with lobed (or in a few species nearly entire)
leaves, the chestnut oaks, with sinuate-toothed many-veined leaves
suggesting those of the chestnut (whence the name), and the live
oaks, usually with small entire evergreen leaves. (One or two of
the last, however, have coarsely toothed leaves suggesting the black
oak group.) The black group is further divided into the red and
black oaks, with large lobed deciduous leaves, and the water and
willow oaks, most of which have narrow leaves (evergreen or
nearly so in some species), smoothish bark, and small acorns.

WHITE AND POST OAKS
Quercus alba, L. WHITE OAK.

A large, common, and well-known tree, probably the most 1m-
portant of all our oaks. It is recommended as one of the best for
planting in lawns and parks. The wood has almost every desirable
quality, such as durability, strength, elasticity, and straight grain.
Logs of it are hewn into cross-ties, and small poles used for levers,
wagon-standards, etc. Large sawed timbers make strong beams
for bridges, houses and ships. Smaller stiff pieces enter into the
construction of the best furniture, book-cases, parts of cotton
presses and various other machines, felloes and other parts of
vehicles, barrel-heads, and interior finish. Its toughness and elas-
ticity make it the best available wood for staves, hoops, and home-
made cotton baskets. In Circular 53 of the U. S. Forest Service
(January, 1907), is this interesting statement: “An industry more
completely dependent upon one species of timber than is tight
cooperage would be difficult to find. Tight cooperage depends
upon white oak, and white oak of good quality.”

CUPULIFERAE 113

Its fuel value is pretty high, too. A decoction of the inner
bark of young trees (the Quercus of the U. 5. Pharmacopoeia)
has astringent properties, and is employed in the treatment of dys-
entery, etc. The bark has also been used for tanning, but is not
considered as good for that purpose as that of some of the other
oaks. Finally, the acorns are excellent food for hogs, and can be
eaten by mankind.

References: U.S. Forest Service Circulars 53, 105, 106.

The white oak is common in woods, in all but the sandiest,
rockiest and muddiest places, in nearly all parts of the state,
especially in the northern half. It is often associated with the
beech. It forms from about one to three percent of the forest in
regions 1 to 11, but is rare in 12 and 13, and unknown in 14 and 15.

It apparently hybridizes occasionally with Quercus montana

(which see).

Quercus stellata, Wang. (Q. obtusiloba Mx.; *Q. minor
(Marsh.) Sarg.) Post Oak.

Resembles the preceding in general appearance, distribution,
and economic properties, but is usually a smaller tree. The wood
does not make quite such good lumber as the white oak, but it
seems to be a little more durable. Chiefly for this reason it is used
more for cross-ties than anything else (and more than any other
oak in this part of the country), especially in regions where long-
leaf pine is scarce or absent. It is also used for fence-posts, as its
name implies. At Athens and probably elsewhere it has been sawed
into staves, but it is regarded as inferior to white oak for that
purpose.

Grows mostly in dry woods and flatwoods, with more or less
clayey soil. Constitutes from one to five percent of the forest in
regions 1 to 6 and 8, about 6% in 7, 8% in 9, and 1% in 10 and
11, but is rare farther south, where Quercus Margaretta mostly
takes its place.

It hybridizes with Quercus montana (which see).

Ouercus Boyntoni, Beadle (Biltmore Bot. Studies, 7:47-48. 1901), de-
scribed from the south end of Lookout Mountain, in Etowah County, seems
to be only a dwarf form of this, or perhaps of the next species.

114 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Quercus Margaretta, Ashe. (SAND-HILL) Post Oak.

Similar to Quercus stellata, and perhaps only a variety of it
(as it was originally described, and is still regarded by some
authors), but differs in being smaller, with trunk usually not more
than six or eight inches in diameter, and having paler and smaller
and less deeply lobed leaves. Too small to be of any economic
importance.

Grows usually in dry sandy soils, with long-leaf pine, in the
coastal plain.

6B. Occasional, from a little west of the Warrior River to Elmore

County.

~

7. Common in a sandy area near the Alabama River opposite Selma.
10E. Pike, Coffee and Dale Counties, especially the latter.
12. Geneva County.
13. Occasional as far south as Bay Minette. Rare west of the Mobile
delta.

A single sturdy specimen of Quercus macrocarpa, Mx. (bur
oak), fruiting abundantly, was pointed out to me by Mr. J. Hay-
good Paterson, in October, 1927, in a calcareous field or pasture in
the black belt about a mile and a half northwest of Snowdoun,
Montgomery Co. Its principal range is the upper Mississippi Val-
ley and east to New York and south to Texas, and it is not sup-
posed to grow naturally in Alabama at all. But the environment
of this specimen is much like that of many in Illinois and adjoining
states at the present time, and it is barely possible that it is indigen-
ous, as the pecans in the same belt farther west (mentioned on a
preceding page) are supposed to be. If a few other trees could
be found the case would be much stronger.

Quercus lyrata, Walt. Swamp Post Oak. (OvEeRcUP OAK.)

This tree looks much like the common post oak in winter, but
is usually larger, with leaves smooth and green on both sides (or
occasionally whitish beneath) and differently shaped, and its acorns
are considerably larger, and differ from those of all our other
oaks in being usually almost completely enclosed in their cups, so
that they cannot fall out.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament or shade. Its wood is
much like that of the white and post oaks, and may be occasionally
marketed with them, but there is not enough of it to be of much
commercial importance.

CUP ULI ER AE 115

Grows mostly in low flatwoods, alluvial bottoms, and second-
bottom sloughs, where the water does not fluctuate more than ten
or fifteen feet with the seasons. Not usually found on the im-
mediate banks of streams. It is nowhere abundant, but seems to
be commonest in the Eutaw belt (region 6C). Outside of Ala-
bama and Georgia it seems to be confined to the coastal plain, but
here it is more widely distributed, as follows:

1B. Along Limestone Creek in the southwestern part of Limestone
County, and in flatwoods in southern Madison and western Morgan. One
tree observed near Leighton, Colbert County.

1C. Along Cotaco Creek, Morgan County.

3. Cherokee, Calhoun and Jefferson Counties.

5. (Grows along the Tallapoosa River in Georgia, and probably in
Alabama also, if it has not been drowned out by power dams.)

6A. Pickens and Tuscaloosa Counties, mostly in second-bottom sloughs
high above the rivers.

6C. Common along the Warrior and Alabama Rivers.

7. Common along rivers and creeks.

8. Bullock, Barbour, Pike, Crenshaw and Wilcox Counties.

10E. Crenshaw, Coffee and Dale Counties.

10W. Sumter, Marengo, Wilcox and Butler Counties.

11. Conecuh County.

13. Along Conecuh River in Escambia County.

14. Upper part of the delta.

Quercus Durandii, Buckley. (Q. breviloba (Torr.) Sarg., in
part). PIN OAK.

This comparatively rare tree has bark and wood much like the
white and post oaks, but leaves and acorns often resembling those
of the water oak, so that it is hable to be mistaken for that species
in the herbarium. It is usually a small or medium-sized tree, but
may attain a diameter of two feet. According to Dr. Mohr its
wood was once used in the black belt for spools and cotton-gin
pins, as well as for fuel.

References :—Buckley 1, Mohr 4, 15.

Grows mostly in calcareous or potassic soils, dry or damp.

1B. On limestone between Falkville and Somerville, Morgan County.
Common on limestone slopes near Blount Springs. North slope of War-
nock Mountain.

2B. On shale cliffs near Warrior River six to ten miles above Tus-
caloosa. (Largest specimen seen there about 16 inches by 60 feet.) Bluffs
of Turkey Creek near Fedora, Jefferson County.

3. Blount County (?), and near Bessemer. Pratt’s Ferry, Bibb Coun-
ty. (E. A. Smith), on limestone.

7. Sumter, Greene, Hale, Perry and Dallas Counties.

8. Dallas and Wilcox Counties.

10W. Discovered in eastern Wilcox County by Buckley in 1859, and
seen in the same neighborhood by the writer in 1922.

11. Choctaw and Clarke Counties.

116 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Ouercus austrina, Small, is a doubtful species, based on several dif-
ferent specimens, including some collected by Dr. Mohr in southern Hale
County, and apparently some referable to Q. Durandii. (See Sargent, Bot.
Gaz. 65:435-436. 1918.) It has been reported from Dallas County by
Cocks, and should be investigated further in the black belt.

CHESTNUT OAKS

Quercus montana, Willd. (Q. Prinus monticola, Mx.; Q. Prinus
of most American authors.*) CHESTNUT OAK. MouNTAIN
OAK.

(Map 13)

A very distinct tree of medium size, with hard deeply fur-
rowed but not rough bark, and large smooth acorns in thin cups.
Like most of the other oaks, this is sometimes planted for a shade
tree; and some of the cultivated specimens are larger than any in
the forests. Its wood is often used for cross-ties and charcoal.
The most valuable part of the tree, though, is the bark, which is
used for tanning in preference to that of all other American oaks.
In the tan-bark operations the rest of the tree is usually allowed
to go to waste. The acorns are good forage for hogs.

References: Foster & Ashe.

Grows mostly on non-calcareous bluffs, cliffs, and rocky and
gravelly slopes, especially in the mountains. (It was formerly
supposed to be confined to the hill country, but several coastal
plain stations are now known, in Virginia, Alabama and Missis-
sippi.) It is often associated with the chestnut, which it somewhat
resembles, and like the chestnut, it is probably more tolerant of
fire than of earthworms.

1A. Rocky hills and bluffs near Tennessee River, Lauderdale and
Colbert Counties.

1B. Occasional on limestone slopes, Morgan County.

1C. Common on a shelf of Hartselle sandstone with limestone above
and below it, on Smithers Mountain, Madison County. (At that locality
the trees have not been seen in leaf, but the bark looks a little different
from the typical form.—See Monograph 8, Fig. 3—It should be investigated
in summer or fall.) Occasional on Little Mountain in Morgan, Lawrence
and Colbert Counties.

2A-2B. Common throughout, on rocky slopes.

3. Frequent on chert and sandstone ridges.

4. Abundant on ridges and rocky slopes.

5. Frequent on rocky slopes, especially near the mountains. South to
near Wetumpka and Tallassee.

6A. Gravelly ravines and bluffs; Franklin, Marion, Tuscaloosa, Hale
and Chilton Counties. (Two feet in diameter and 75 feet tall near Havana.)

ioe *See Sargent, Rhodora 17:40. 1915.

CUPULIFERAE 117

a

Map 13. Southern limit of Quercus montana.

6B. Tuscaloosa, Hale and Bibb Counties.
6C. Heads of deep ravines south of Havana, Hale County, and a
few miles north of Marion, Perry County.

Quercus Bernardiensis, Wolf (Torreya 18:161-162. 1918),
described from Cullman County, is now believed by its author to
be a hybrid between Q. montana and Q. stellata. I have seen what
I took to be the same hybrid, in company with both parents, at the
type-locality (1927), on rocky hills near the Warrior River about
twelve miles above Tuscaloosa (1926), in a ravine between Maud
and Trio, Bibb County (1924, and seen from train in subsequent
years), and at Tallassee (1906).

What appears to be a hybrid between Q. alba and Q. montana
(Q. Saulei, Schneider?) grows on a stratum of sandstone between

limestones on the northwest slope of Lookout Mountain near Val-
ley Head, DeKalb County.

118 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Quercus Muhlenbergii, Kngelm. (Q. Castanea, Willd.; Q. acu-
minata (Mx.) Sarg.) (CHINQUAPIN Oak, or YELLOW Oak.)

Resembles Quercus montana very much in foliage, but has
soft bark like a white or post oak, and smaller acorns, which seem
to be produced rather sparingly. Still more like Q. Michauxi,
from which it is most easily distinguished (when acorns are not
available) by its narrower leaves and drier habitat. The leaves on
the lower part of the tree, however, may be almost exactly like
those of Q. Michauxu. Its wood is probably similar to that of the
related species, but it is too rare to be of much importance, and is
perhaps not distinguished at all by the natives.

Grows mostly in rather dry calcareous or potassic soils.

1B. Frequent, especially on limestone slopes.

2A. Winston County, and southwestern Cullman.

2B. On shaly bluffs, Fayette, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.
(Grows about a foot and a half in diameter and 60 feet tall on Hurricane
Creek, Tuscaloosa County. )

3. Found in most of the counties, usually on limestone.

7. Chalk outcrops near Epes, Sumter County, south of Newbern, Hale
County, and near House Bluff, Autauga County. Rare in Dallas County

(Cocks).

10W. Ina large area of limestone in eastern Wilcox County. (See
Ecology, 1:201. 1920.)

11. On limestone along Salt Creek, Clarke County.

12. Limestone outcrop near Gordon, Houston County.

Quercus prinoides, Willd., a shrubby species similar to the pre-
ceding, is common in dry woods about two miles east of Mont-
gomery (region 6C), but not known elsewhere in Alabama.

Quercus Michauxii, Nutt. (Q. Prinus Michauxti Chapm. Said
by Sargent* to be the original Q. Prinus of Linnaeus.)
Swamp CHEsTNuT Oak. (CHESTNUT WHITE Oak. BASKET
or Cow Oak.)

Commonly a large tree (often three feet in diameter), with
bark like a white oak and leaves like a chestnut oak, as one of its
common names implies. It seems to be adapted to every purpose
that the white oak is, but is less abundant and therefore not so well
known. For basket-making it is believed to be superior. The large
acorns are said to have been roasted and eaten by the Indians, and
they are good food for hogs.

eBhadara, 17a tol.

CUPULIFERAE 119

Most common in the coastal plain. In Alabama this grows
mostly in river and creek bottoms, but in Florida it is commonly
in low calcareous hammocks, which may be remote from large
streams.

1A. Limestone County.

1B. Jackson, Madison and Morgan Counties. Said by Mohr to grow
4 feet in diameter and 116 feet tall in Blount County.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. St. Clair, Talladega and Jefferson Counties.

5. Cleburne, Clay and Elmore Counties. Not common.

6A. Common from Lamar County southeastward.

7. In most of the counties.

8. Crenshaw and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Crenshaw and Pike Counties.

10W, 11. Rather common.

15. Bayou la Batre, Mobile County (Mohr).

LIVE OAKS
Quercus Virginiana, Mill. (Q. virens, Ait.) LivE OaKk.
(Fig. 28)

Differs from all the oaks previously listed in being evergreen
(whence its name), and in having smalier leaves, which are not
lobed. It never grows very tall, but when old its branches are
more widely extended than those of any other of our oaks, making
a tree wider than high.

It is one of the favorite shade-trees for streets, parks, ceme-
teries, etc., in the regions where it is native, and is occasionally
planted. as far inland as Augusta, Ga., Montgomery, Ala., and
Jackson, Miss. Its wood is very tough and heavy, and curved
pieces cut from the junction of a limb and trunk were in great
demand for ships’ “‘knees,”’ before the days of iron and steel ves-
sels. It also has a limited use for mauls, rollers, etc. The bark is
good for tanning, but is perhaps no longer used for that purpose.

The live oak ranges over a considerable area, with quite a
variety of soils, in the southeastern states, and its essential en-
vironmental factors have never been fully determined. It seems
to prefer a mild climate and a sunny situation, and calcareous or
phosphatic soils, not too dry or too wet, and it seems to tolerate
more salt and sulphur in the ground water than most trees do. It
is not damaged much by fire, but (like several other evergreens) it
probably does not have many earthworms around its roots in its

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 28. Quercus Virginiana (with “Spanish moss”) along small salt
bayou at Coden, Mobile County. Photograph by Dr. E. A. Smith and
R. S. Hodges, August 1, 1902.

CUPULIPERAE 121

natural habitats. Its distribution in Alabama is rather limited, as
follows:

12. Edge of rich woods around a limestone cave in the southeastern
part of Covington County. (Could probably be found also in Geneva and
Houston. ) : ‘ (

13. Around ponds a little south of Bay Minette.

15. Shores of Mobile Bay and connecting waters, near Coden, Daphne,
Point Clear, Bon Secour, etc. (Doubtless also on the islands.)

Quercus geminata, Small. (Dwarr, oR ScruB) Live Oak.

Differs from the preceding in being much smaller, sometimes
hardly more than a shrub, with stiffer leaves strongly concave and
white-woolly beneath. Although it is convenient to call it a distinct
species, it might be more logical to treat it as a variety.* It is too
small and scarce in Alabama to be of any importance.

Grows in sterile sandy soils, where fire is rather infrequent.

12. Dry sand along Double Bridges Creek and Pea River near Geneva.

13. Sandy places near the Mobile delta, in Washington and -Mobile
Counties. Southeast of Foley, Baldwin County.

15. Old dunes south of Orange Beach, Baldwin County (and doubt-
less on the islands of Mobile County, which I have not visited).

Quercus minima, Small. (Q. virens dentata, Chapm.)

A shrub, usually not more than knee-high, with tough ever-
green leaves something like those of Q. Virginiana, but obscurely
toothed, suggesting holly leaves.

This is common in the flat pine woods of Florida, but I have
seen it only once in Alabama, in low pine lands near Fish River,
between Silver Hill and Fairhope, Baldwin County.

Dr. Mohr reports Quercus Virginiana maritima (Mx.) Sargent from
Navy Cove, Mobile County. That is a variety I have never identified, but it
may be only a larger form of the preceding; or possibly he mistook Q.
geminata (which was not described until 1897) for it.

*For a discussion of the differences between nr live oaks see Sargent,
Bot. Gaz. 65:443-446. 1918.
+See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 32:465. 1905.

122 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

RED AND BLACK OAKS

Quercus falcata, Mx. (Q. digitata (Marsh.) Sudw.*) Rep Oak.
(Called “Spanish Oak” by many northern writers on trees. )
This tree is too well known to require any description. It is

sometimes planted for shade (or left standing when the rest of the

forest is cleared away), around farm-houses, and sometimes even
in cities, and under such conditions often develops a trunk four or
five feet in diameter; but in the forest, where it has to compete
with trees of the same or other species, specimens more than two
feet in diameter are exceptional. The wood, like that of most of
the following oaks (black oak group), is coarse and not very
durable. It makes an inferior quality of staves and furniture, but
is used more for fuel, and in frontier settlements for fence-rails.

The bark is probably the red-oak bark used by country people for

poultices, etc., and occasionally for tanning.

Grows in dry woods, especially in ferruginous soils, and not
usually in hammocks or other places well protected from fire. It
is common in every region except 4, 14 and 15, where it is un-

known, or at least rare.

The variety triloba, with three-lobed leaves, seems to be nothing but a
juvenile form, which may be expected almost anywhere within the range
of the species, especially in old fields.

Quercus Pagoda, Raf. (Q. rubra pagodaefolia (Ell.) Ashe)
(Rep Oak)

Sometimes treated as a variety of the preceding, from which
it differs in having the leaves paler beneath, with shorter and more
numerous lobes, and growing in damp soils.; As far as known its
economic properties are similar to those of Q. falcata.

Grows mostly in alluvial bottoms of creeks and rivers.

1B. Creek bottoms west of Falkviile, Morgan County.

3. Etowah, St. Clair, Jefferson and Talladega Counties.

6A. Occasional from Franklin County to Chilton County.

6C. Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Sumter County to Lowndes County.

9. Sumter County.

10W. Wilcox, Marengo and Choctaw Counties.

11 (?). In Monroe County opposite Choctaw Bluff on the Alabama
River.

*According to Prof. Sargent (Rhodora 17:39. 1915; 18:45-48, 1916)
this is the original Ouercus rubra of Linnaeus; but to take up that name,
which for over 150 years was applied to a different tree, might be con-
fusing to non-scientific readers.

+See Sargent, Bot. Gaz. 65:427-428. 1918. On the last-named page
there is described another form, O. rubra leucophylla, which may grow in

Alabama too, but I have never distinguished it.

CUPULIFERAE 123

Fic. 29. Quercus velutina, with trunk about three
feet in diameter, and a few leaves showing, on dry up-
lands about three miles northeast of Searles, Tusca-
loosa County, June 4, 1913.

124 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Quercus velutina, Lam. (Q. tinctoria, Bartr.) BLACK OAK.

(Fig. 29)

A tree intermediate in some respects between Q. falcata and
the next, and not always easily distinguished at a glance. It is also
somewhat variable. In the North what passes for this species
usually has a pretty straight trunk and bark almost as smooth as
that of the water oaks, while in the South it is inclined to grow
crooked, and have rough bark. (Both forms seem to occur in the
neighborhood of Washington, D. C.)

The wood is similar to that of the red oak. The bark (‘‘quer-
citron bark” of the dispensatories) yields a yellow dye, and is also
used in tanning. It was formerly officinal, and decoctions of it
were used in the treatment of hemorrhage.

Grows in dry woods, especially in ferruginous soils and in
mountainous regions, and does not seem to be particularly averse
to fire.

1A. Colbert County.

1B. Colbert, Morgan and Madison Counties.

2A. Common; making about 3% of the forest.
2B. Frequent. Walker, Jefferson, Tuscaloosa and Shelby Counties.

3. Mostly on chert and sandstone ridges, DeKalb, Blount, Jefferson,
and probably all the other counties.

Very common on dry slopes and ridges.

5. Frequent; about 1% of the forest. ee

6A. Occasional from Franklin County to Tuscaloosa County.
6B. Tuscaloosa and Autauga Counties.

6C. Greene and Autauga Counties.

7. Greene and Dallas Counties.
9. Sumter County; rather rare. :
10E. Barbour, Pike and Coffee Counties.

10W. Wilcox, Butler and Monroe Counties.
11. Monroe County.

Mt

Quercus borealis maxima (Marsh.)* (Q. rubra of 19th cen-
tury writers ) (NorTHERN RED Oak. LEOPARD OAK.)

A stately tree, with large thin leaves, large acorns, and smooth-
ish bark. The cups of the acorns are characteristic, being about an
inch in diameter and very shallow. ‘The wood is similar to that of
the other red oaks. The bark is mentioned as a non-officinal drug
in “Wild medicinal plants of the United States” (U.S. Bur. Plant

*This name was given almost simultaneously by Sargent (Rhodora
18:48) and Ashe (Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters 11:90) in March, 1916, and
it may never be possible to decide which author got into print with it first.
(See Torreya 17:135. 1917.)

CUPULIFERAE 125

‘Industry Bull. 89), but possibly it was confused with Q. falcata or
Q. velutina. The tree is sometimes planted for shade, especially
in the North.

Grows mostly in rich woods on cool shady slopes, not often
burned over. When acorns were not available and I was traveling
rapidly I may have sometimes confused it with Q. velutina or Q.
Schnecku, but its distribution in Alabama seems to be about as

follows:

1A. Hills near Riverton and south of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County.
2A. Lookout Mountain (Mohr). Blount and St. Clair Counties.
2B. Occasional in ravines.

3. DeKalb and Talladega Counties.

4. Lower slopes of mountains, Clay County.

5. Randolph, Chilton, Tallapoosa, and doubtless other counties.
6A. Scattered throughout.

7. Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Coffee, Dale and Covington Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw and Clarke Counties.

Quercus Schneckii, Britton. (Rep Oak?)

A tree somewhat intermediate between the preceding and the
following species, and liable to the confused with one or the other
in winter, or when one does not have time to examine closely, and I
am not sure that I have always identified it correctly. It is also
very closely related to Q. Texana and Q. Shumardii, which were
originally described from Texas by Buckley.*

Grows mostly in calcareous soils, dry or damp, in fairly dense

woods.

1B. Jackson, Madison, Morgan and Franklin Counties.

3. Etowah, St. Clair, Jefferson, Shelby, and probably most of the
other counties.

7. Sumter, Greene, Hale, Dallas, Autauga, Montgomery and Macon
Counties.

8. Dallas and Barbour Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Dale County (perhaps QO. coccinea?)

10W. Marengo, Wilcox and Monroe Counties.

11. Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Near a limestone cave in southeastern corner of Covington County.

Quercus coccinea, Wang. SPANISH OAK. (SCARLET Oak
of the books )

A neat-looking tree of medium size, with smoothish bark,
and deeply lobed leaves which turn bright red in fall. Probably
not well known or often used for any specific purpose in Alabama,
but it makes a pretty shade-tree, if nothing else.

*See Sargent, Bot. Gaz. 65:424-426. 1918.

126 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Grows in dry woods, in rather poor soils; commonest north-
ward. In former years I may have sometimes confused it with
Q. Schneckti, although the habitats of the two are usually quite
different.

1A. Limestone and Colbert Counties.

1B. Near Athens and Stevenson (the latter perhaps O. Schneckii?).
Flatwoods north of Leighton.

1C. Lawrence and Colbert Counties.

2A. Very common, making probably nearly 3% of the forest.

2B. Frequent; less than 1%.

3. Scattered on dry ridges.

4. Pope Mountain, Talladega County. Blue Ridge near Erin, Clay
County.

5. Clay and Chilton Counties, and probably most of the others.

6A. Common in Franklin and Marion Counties, less so southward.

6C. Autauga and Macon Counties.

7. Var. tuberculata reported from Dallas County by Cocks.

8. Barbour County.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Barbour, Dale(?), Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Choctaw and Conecuh Counties.

11. Choctaw County.

Quercus Catesbaei, Mx.
TuRKEY Oak. (FORKED-LEAF) BLACK-JACK.

(Map 14, Fig. 30)

A small scrubby tree, rarely more than a foot in diameter,
with hard rough blackish bark, and deeply lobed thick reticulated
shining pale green leaves which are much alike on both sides, and
turned at all sorts of angles to the horizon, so that they get about
as much sunshine on one side as on the other. The leaves turn a
brilliant red for a short time in the fall, and then brown, many of
them remaining on the tree in that condition all winter, so that it is
easily recognized at all seasons. The tree is hardly ever used for
anything except fuel, but it serves very well for that, being usually
of sizes easily cut.

Grows in very dry, usually sandy soils, but not in extremely
sterile soils like the white sands along the coast. Almost confined
to the coastal plain. Nearly always associated with the long leaf
pine, and as indifferent to fire as that is.

5. Summit of Bald Knob near Wetumpka. (See Plant World 9:266.
1907.)

6B. Rather common throughout, extending to a few miles west of the
Warrior River in Tuscaloosa County. Abundant in Autauga County.

6C. On gravelly hills and in sandy creek bottoms, Autauga County.

7. Sand in Dallas and Lowndes Counties.

8. Pike County.

CUPULIFERAE

Fic. 30. Quercus Catesbaei on high pine hills northwest of

Joffre (formerly Kingston station), Autauga County.

1927.

June 29,

ht
™N

128 EGONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

MAP + - ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS.
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

QUERCUS CATESBAE/

RMH 1926

Map 14. Approximate distribution and relative abundance of Quercus
Catesbaei, indicated by dots.

CUPULIFERAE 129

10E. Frequent, but not abundant except in Dale County.

10W. Rare, mostly on Buhrstone ridges. Wilcox, Monroe and Choc-
taw Counties.

11. Occasional on uplands, Choctaw, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Common throughout.

13. Very common.

Quercus Marylandica, Muench. (Q. migra of most 19th cen-
tury authors. Q. ferruginea, Ait.)
(RoUND-LEAF) BLACK-JACK. (DOLLAR-LEAF OAK)

(Fig. 31)

A well-known rugged-looking tree of medium size, ranging
from scarcely more than a shrub to a foot or two in diameter. In
late winter when its leaves are off it looks much like the other
black-jack, Q. Catesbaei. Like that species, its principal use is
for fuel.

If there is any tree that specially prefers ferruginous soils (a
point not yet demonstrated, however ), this is it. Its rusty-looking
leaves and black bark suggest iron, and it grows especially on red
clay hills, and in other very dry soils, but not in quite such poor
soils as the preceding, though the two are often associated. It
seems to be almost as indifferent to fire as QO. Catesbaci is.

1A. Limestone County.
1B. Frequent on the poorer uplands.
1C. Lawrence and Colbert Counties.

2A. Common nearly throughout, but said by W. Wolf to be absent
from the vicinity of Cullman.

2B. Common.

3. Very common, especially on chert and sandstone ridges.
4. The most abundant deciduous tree.

5. Common throughout.

6A. Common on uplands.

6B. Very common.

6C. Frequent.

7. Common on the poorer soils, where the chalk is overlaid by red
loam. Relatively more abundant since the deforestation of the richer soils.

8. Occasional in Dallas, Macon, Bullock, and perhaps other counties.

9. Marengo County.

10E. Common throughout.

10W. Frequent in all the counties.

11. Frequent.

12. Common.

13. Very common on loamy uplands.

30

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

[Eicee Sib

Ouercus Marylandica on high pine hills near center
of Elmore County. July 22, 1927.

CUPUDLIRERAK 131

Two trees growing close together in a field on the farm of R.
W. Shackelford, northeast of Autaugaville (region 6C), observed
in fruit in the fall of 1927, seem to represent hybrids between this
and Q. falcata and Q. Catesbaci respectively. Some oak stumps
close by may represent one or more of the parent trees, but since
they were cut the best evidence for identifying the hybrids (if such
they are) is lost.

Quercus heterophylla, Mx. f. (BarTRAM OAK.)

This species, or hybrid, has been known for over 100 years, and re-
ported from various places scattered from New York to Texas. It is sup-
posed to be a hybrid between the willow oak and one of the red oaks, but
its exact parentage has never been settled. A single specimen was found
by Mohr and Sudworth near Falkville, in the Tennessee Valley, 35 or 40
years ago. (See Mohr, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 19:309. 1892; Plant Life
of Ala., 473.)

Quercus Nuttallii, Palmer (Jour. Arnold Arboretum, 8 :52-54.
1927)

A medium-sized tree with the smoothest and greenest bark of
any of our lobed-leaved oaks, thin deeply lobed leaves which are
green on both sides, and medium-sized acorns. ‘There are a few
specimens of what appears to be this species planted for shade in
the streets of Tuscaloosa.

At the time this was described it was known only from Mis-

sissippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and perhaps Missouri. But I col-
lected it the same year (1927) in the bottoms of Bughall Creek in
Bullock County (region 7), and in the Mobile delta in Baldwin
County opposite Mount Vernon (region 14), where it seems to
be rather common; and I had previously seen what may be the
same thing in alluvial situations in Tuscaloosa and Wilcox Coun-
ties. This may be what Dr. Mohr called Quercus Texana in the
Plant Life of Alabama, and it may prove to be pretty widely dis-

tributed in the state.

132 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

QUERCUS CINEREA

RM.H. 1928

Map 15. Approximate distribution and relative abundance of Quercus
cinerea, indicated by dots.

CUPULIFPERAE 133
WATER AND WILLOW OAKS.

Quercus cinerea, Mx. (Q. brevifolia (Lam.) Sarg.) TuRKEY
Oak. (HiGH-GRrouND WILLow Oak. NARROW-LEAVED BLACK-
PACK, BLUE-JACK.)

(Map 15)

A small tree, seldom as much as a foot in diameter and 25
feet tall, with rough bark and narrow entire grayish leaves. The
wood does not attain sufficient dimensions to be used for anything
but fuel; but the bark is said to yield a fine yellow dye.

Its habitat and distribution are very similar to those of Q.
Catesbaei, with which it is commonly associated, but it seems to
prefer soils that are a trifle finer-grained or richer or more phos-
phatic, and it is less abundant, but ranges farther inland. It is
chiefly confined to regions where less than one percent of the area
was cultivated in cotton in 1880.

2A. A few small specimens of what appears to be this species grow
near Noccalula Falls at the south end of Lookout Mountain, Etowah County.

2B. South Lowell, Walker County (Mohr).

5. Hills near Coosa and ‘Tallapoosa Rivers, Chilton and Elmore
Counties.

6A. Tuscaloosa County to Macon County; rather rare.
6B. Common on hills.

6C. Autauga, Elmore and Montgomery Counties.

7. In sand, Dallas County.

10E. Frequent.

10W. Choctaw, Monroe and Butler Counties.
11. Choctaw and Clarke Counties.

12. Common.
13. Common throughout.

Quercus Arkansana, Sargent. (Q. Caput-rivuli, Ashe? )
(Figs. 32-34)

A small tree, seldom exceeding a foot in diameter and thirty
feet in height, with trunk usually a little crooked or leaning, and
gray bark, remarkably smooth for an oak, and somewhat resem-
bling the beech in that respect. The leaves are the largest known
in the water-oak group, being sometimes four or five inches long
and broad, wedge-shaped and obscurely three-lobed, much like
those of Q. Marylandica, but thinner and nearly smooth. The
flowers appear in March. The acorns are small, and scarcely dis-
tinguishable from those of the other water and willow oaks.

re)

4

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

nice, By, Aer tralks
a foot in diameter,
March 27, 1913.

of Quercus Arkansana (:

in the “‘pocosin,’ Pike

2

), about
County.

CUPP HEE REAUE, 135

Fic. 33. Branch of Quercus Arkansana (?), with young leaves and
flowers. March 27, 1913.

Quercus Arkansana was: originally described by Prof. Sar-
gent* from Hempstead County, Arkansas. At the same time he
mentioned a specimen of what appeared to be the same thing col-
lected by Dr. Mohr on July 4, 1880, on the wooded banks of the
Conecuh River in Conecuh County, Ala. [but the Conecuh River
does not touch Conecuh County!]. My first specimens were col-
lected in the “pocosin,” a few miles east of Troy, on Nov. 6, 1912,
and a trunk of one of the trees, photographed the following spring
(March 27, 1913), was figured in the Bulletin of the Torreya
Botanical Club 41:215, May, 1914. In January, 1920, Mr. J. O.
Veatch found what is evidently the same thing in sandy hammocks
in the southern part of Okaloosa County, Florida. In 1923 Mr.
Ashe described his Q. Caput-rivuli, from West Florida, supposing
it to be distinct from Q. Arkansana, but making no reference to
my Alabama specimens. The specimens from east and west of the
Mississippi River, with a gap of several hundred miles between
them, seem to differ slightly, Q. Arkansana as originally figured
having larger acorns than the Alabama tree; but for the present it
seems best to treat them as all one species.

*Trees and Shrubs, 2:121-122, pl. 152. 1911.

136 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 34. Leafy twigs and acorns of Quercus Arkansana (7), collected
in the “pocosin’, November 6, 1912, and photographed a few weeks later

against a background ruled in inch squares.

CUPULIFERAE 137

Dr. Mohr indicated on the label of his Alabama specimen that
he considered it a hybrid between Quercus Marylandica and Q.
nigra, and similar views have been expressed by others about Q.
Arkansana, But it does not usually associate with the other species
named, and its only resemblance to Q. Marylandica is in the shape
of its largest leaves. It differs too much from that in bark and
acorns to be closely related to it. The question of hybridity has
been discussed by Palmer in the paper cited in the bibliography,
Quercus Arkansana, or what now passes for that in Alabama,
seems to be a perfectly good species, related to Q. nigra and Q.
myrtifolia, and it might be regarded by very conservative persons
as a giant form of the latter.
Quercus myrtifolia, Willd. (Q. Phellos arenaria, Chapm; Q.

~

aquatica myrtifolia A. DC.)

A large shrub, or occasionally a small tree, with small round-
ish stiff evergreen leaves concave below.

Grows in sterile sands; known in Alabama only from old
dunes on the coast of Baldwin County. (Commoner in Florida,
like its associate Pinus clausa.)

Quercus nigra, L. (Q. aquatica (Lam.) Walt.) Water Oak.

A medium-sized tree with straight trunk, usually a foot or so
in diameter, and rather smooth bark. It is variable in foliage, and
not always easy to distinguish from related species. The narrow
obscurely three-lobed leaves hang on and remain green part of the
winter, but are usually nearly all gone before the new ones appear
in the spring. It is one of the commonest shade-trees, in all the
southeastern states. It is hardly used for anything else, except
fuel.

Grows mostly near streams of all sizes, nearly throughout the
state, below 1000 feet altitude. It often comes up like a weed in
low clearings, but can hardly be called abundant anywhere. It is
rare in the barrens and mountains, and not known in the lower
part of the Mobile delta, but is common in regions 6C, 7, 8 and 9,
where it seems to constitute about two percent of the present forest.

138 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 35. Several specimens of Quercus obtusa in low pasture near Fort
Deposit, Lowndes County. April 20, 1928. Many other oaks have about
the same shape when not crowded by other trees, and this could hardly be
distinguished from QO. Phellos at a little distance.

Quercus obtusa ( Willd.) Ashe.* (Q. rhombica, Sarg.)
(WATER OAK.)
(Fig. 35)

An imperfectly understood species, apparently intermediate
between the preceding and the following ; and it might be regarded
as a hybrid between them if it was not a little too abundant and
wide-spread for that. And its habitat is usually quite different
from that of Q. laurifolia. It is commonly planted for shade,
especially in and around Tuscaloosa and Montgomery.

On account of the difficulty of distinguishing this from its
relatives, and the fact that it was not recognized as a distinct
species until 1918, it does not figure very largely in my field notes.
It seems to be confined to the coastal plain, and to prefer rich low-
lands, either alluvial or calcareous. It will probably be found in

many other places besides the following:

7. Greene, Sumter, Dallas and Bullock Counties.

8. In a low pasture near Fort Deposit, Lowndes County, and probably
native not far away.

10W. Wilcox and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw County.

12. Houston County.

13 (?). Monroe County, and in a creek swamp between McIntosh
and Calvert, Washington County.

*Torreya 18:72-73. 1918.
TBot. Gaz. 65:430-431. 1918.

CUPULIFERAE 139

Fic. 36. Group of large specimens of Quercus laurifolia, on Univer-
sity campus, in winter. February 9, 1906.

Quercus laurifolia, Mx. (LAvuREL Oak of the books. Generally
confused by the natives with either water, willow or live oak.)

(Figs. 36-39)

A neat-looking tree of medium size, with bark and acorns
almost exactly like those of Q. nigra, and narrow leaves which
are partly evergreen, about two-thirds of them remaining green on
the tree until spring (a fact which is not commonly recognized in
the manuals). In fact it is more completely evergreen than any of
our other oaks except the live oaks and Quercus myrtifolia.

A common shade-tree in the coastal plain, often attaining a
diameter of three feet in cultivation. The wood would doubtless
make good fuel, but I have never noticed any of it cut for that
purpose.

Grows usually in loamy sand, protected from fire, as in ham-
mocks and on banks of streams. Mostly in the coastal plain. (See

3ull. Torrey Bot. Club 35 :529, 1906.)

140 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 37. Twig of Quercus laurifolia, from University campus, with
young leaves and flowers. March 22, 1911. (Contrast this with Fig. 40.)

2B. Near streams, Walker, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

3. What appears to be this species grows sparingly along Black Creek
at the south end of Lookout Mountain near Alabama City.

5. Near the Coosa River in Chilton and Coosa Counties, and near
Channahatchee Creek a little north of Eclectic.

6A. Frequent from Tuscaloosa County southeastward.

6B. Bibb, Chilton and Autauga Counties.

6C. Pickens, Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Sandy places near streams. Greene, Hale and Marengo Counties.
Dallas County (Cocks).

8. Frequent.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Common, especially in the “pocosin” of Pike County.
10W, 11. Common.

12. Houston and Geneva Counties.

13. Frequent.

15. Baldwin County.

Quercus Phellos, L. WILLow OAK.
(Figs. 38-40)

A very distinct species, resembling Q. Jaurifolia in summer,
but the leaves come out revolute (rolled up) in the spring (instead
of flat as in the water oaks), and all fall off early in the winter.
They are a little longer and narrower than those of Q. laurifolia,
and never develop lobes on young shoots, as most of the water oaks
do.

It is a common shade-tree, but does not seem to have many
other uses.

141

38 39

Fic. 38. Quercus Phellos (center) and Quercus laurifolia, on Univer-
sity campus, showing how the deciduous tree seems to be pushing the ever-
green one aside; a common occurrence when evergreen and deciduous
trees grow close together. March 10, 1906. (These trees must have been
planted before the Civil War.) See Harper 6 in bibliography.

Fic. 39. Same two trees as in preceding figure, nearly 22 years later.
January 11, 1928. This is a little closer view than the other, the growth of
other shade-trees in the interval making it impossible to get a satisfactory
picture from the same point as in 1906. At the time this was taken the
tree in the center was 36 inches in diameter and the one at the right 39
inches.

Grows in alluvial bottoms and damp clayey flatwoods, and
around ponds. — Can tolerate standing water better than most oaks.
Not to be expected in the mountains, where suitable habitats for it

do not exist.

1A. Common in the barrens of Limestone County.

1B. Frequent.

1C. Morgan County.

2B. Walker and Jefferson Counties.

3. Common, especially in the flatwoods of Jones Valley.

5. Chambers County (thé most fertile of the Piedmont counties).
6A. Frequent.

6C. Common, especially near rivers.

7. Common; making about 3% of the present forest.

8. Macon, Russell and Barbour Counties.

9. Sumter and Wilcox Counties.

10W. Occasional throughout.

11. Conecuh County.

12(7). River-bottoms in Washington County opposite Jackson.
13. Washington and Escambia Counties.

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 40. Twig of Quercus Phellos, from the Uni-
versity campus, showing young leaves and _ flowers.

March 14, 1911. (Contrast this with Fig. 37.)

ULMACEAE 143

ULMACEAE. Eo Famixty.

Includes 13 genera and about 140 species, mostly deciduous
trees, in temperate and tropical regions. Some are timber trees,
and some are cultivated for shade or ornament.

ULMUS, Linnaeus. Tue Erms.
Ulmus Americana, L. (AMERICAN, OR WHITE) Er.

A rather large and stately tree, with gracefully arching
branches. It has long been a favorite shade-tree, especially in New
England, where some individual trees in cities have even acquired
a historical interest, and in our black belt cities. (Two horticultural
varieties have been described.) Its wood is hard and tough, and
is largely used in the North for cooperage, boxes, furniture, and
parts of vehicles and ships. It blooms in Alabama in February,
and ripens its seeds about the time the leaves appear.

It is not very abundant in Alabama, but it is found along
streams and in fertile soils, and is commonest northward. Some
of the trees in the southern part of the state may be referable to
U. Floridana Chapm., a species not well understood, and not recog-
nized at all by some of the “authorities.”

1A. Limestone and Colbert Counties.

1B. Common, especially along the Tennessee River.

1C. Morgan County.

2B. Along Warrior River a few miles above Tuscaloosa.

3. Mostly along rivers.

5. On Coosa River at “Lock 12”, Chilton County.

6A. Tuscaloosa and Elmore Counties.

6C. Pickens, Greene and Elmore Counties.

7. Mostly along rivers and creeks. Pickens, Sumter, Greene, Hale,
Dallas and Montgomery Counties.

8. Russell County.

9. Sumter County.

10W. Sumter, Marengo, Wilcox and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Washington Counties.
14. Upper part of the delta.

Ulmus alata, Mx. (Rep, ork WINGED) ELM. Wanoo.
(Fig. 41)

Usually a smaller tree than the preceding, with the smaller
branches often corky-winged in the manner of the sweet gum
(especially on young trees), and considerably smaller leaves.
Blooms in February. Planted in the streets of southern cities about

144 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

2
2 ah
Pace

Seal Se

Fic. 41. Roadside specimen of Ulmus alata, about four feet
in diameter and 80 feet tall, about four miles northeast of Triana,
Madison County. July 20, 1922.

ULMACEAE 145

as commonly as U. Americana is in the North. The wood has
about the same properties.

Grows in bottom-lands and flatwoods, and on banks of rivers
and creeks, especially in clayey and calcareous soils. Occasionally
comes up spontaneously in vacant lots and along city streets, near
where it has been planted.

1A. Lauderdale, Colbert and Limestone Counties.

1B. Common, especially in flatwoods, making about 2% of the forest.

1C. Morgan County.

2B. Fayette, Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Frequent; about 1% of the forest.

5. Cliffs on Coosa River, Elmore County. (Doubtless occurs in most
of the other counties, but I never happened to make note of it.)

6A. Franklin, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

6C. Perry, Dallas, Autauga and Elmore Counties.

7, 8. Frequent; about 1%.

9. Wilcox County.

10W. Frequent; about 1%.

11. Choctaw and Monroe Counties.

13. Rather rare. Conecuh River swamp, Escambia County. Stock-
ton (Mohr).

Ulmus fulva, Mx. (U. pubescens, Walt.?) SLIPPERY ELM.

A small or medium-sized tree, with very rough leaves, and
flowers in small dense clusters in early spring, ripening seeds
about the time the leaves come out, as in the two preceding species.
This species would make a good shade tree, and its wood is much
like that of other elms, but it is chiefly noted for its mucilaginous
inner bark, which is a well-known drug. In some localities it is
hard to find a tree from which some of the bark has not been
peeled at some time or other; and for that reason it is not often
planted in streets and parks. It is said (in Autauga County) to
make good fence-posts, but it is too rare to be used much for that
purpose.

Chiefly confined to very rich woods, especially in calcareous
soils, much like the black walnut, with which it sometimes asso-
ciates. Nowhere common in this state.

1A. On limestone near Elkmont, Limestone Co.

1B. Jackson, Madison, Morgan, Franklin and Blount Counties.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr).

2B. Fayette and Walker Counties.

3. Etowah, Talladega and Shelby Counties.

6C(?). Autauga and Montgomery Counties (Mohr).

7. Greene County. Near House Bluff, Autauga County. Chalk bluffs
near Demopolis. Dallas County (Cocks).

11. On limestone near Sugegsville, Clarke County.

146 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Ulmus serotina, Sargent.

A rather rare tree, probably not distinguished from other elms
by persons who are not botanists. It is not very easily recognized
in winter and summer, but it is in spring and fall, for it differs
from all our other elms in blooming in September and October
instead of February and March. Nothing is known of its economic
properties, except that it is occasionally planted for shade.

Grows in rich woods, on shaly bluffs or in calcareous soils.
Its distribution is imperfectly known, on account of the difficulty
of identifying it, and it may be commoner than we now suppose.
Dr. Mohr believed that it occurred in the black belt, but never had
an opportunity to verify that.

1A. A few trees observed on south side of Mussel Shoals in Colbert
County, in October, 1922.

1B. Limestone ridges, Madison County (Mohr). Bean Mountain,
Morgan County (?). Warnock Mountain, Blount County (7).

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.*

3. On a limestone ridge north of Birmingham (C. L. Boynton).+

PLANERA, Gmelin.
Planera aquatica ( Walt.) Gmel. (WatTER) ELM.
(Fig. 42)

A small crooked tree, rarely over a foot in diameter, with
small two-ranked leaves much like those of Ulmus alata, or per-
haps stilll more like those of Carpinus. Flowers greenish, incon-
spicuous, in March. It is little known to persons not botanists, and
is probably not purposely selected for any use in Alabama. In
Georgia I have been told that squirrels are fond of its seeds.

Grows on banks of rivers (and occasionally other bodies of
water) that fluctuate several feet (but not too much) with the
seasons. Almost confined to the coastal plain. Observed on the
Tennessee River near Florence, and on the Warrior and Tombigbee
almost every mile from the fall line at Tuscaloosa down to the
head of the Mobile delta. It seems to be less common on the
Alabama River, perhaps because that stream fluctuates more, as
already indicated under Taxodium distichum. I have seen it on
the Alabama near Montgomery, and at House Bluff in Autauga

#Sce Plant World 9:105. 1906: Jour. Elisha Mitchell SeiSoe. G7 ular,
1922,

+Biltmore Bot. Stud. 1:143-144. 1902.

ULMACEAE 147

Fic. 42. Planera, about a foot in diameter and 30 feet tall,
in Mobile delta in Baldwin County opposite Mt. Vernon. May 16,
1927.

148 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

County and Bridgeport in Wilcox (and Dr. Mohr reported it from
Lisbon in Clarke, and Prof. Cocks from Hatcher’s Bluff in
Dallas), but not at Selma, Cahaba, Claiborne, or the railroad bridge
in Wilcox County, or in traveling upstream by steamboat a whole
afternoon from Dixie Landing at the northern edge of Baldwin
County (in October, 1912). I have no record of it from the Tom-
bigbee above Demopolis (where the Warrior comes in), or from
the Chattahoochee, or any of the smaller rivers of the coastal plain,
but of course it is not impossible that it will be found in some of
those places.

CELTIS, Linnaeus. THe HAcCKBERRIES.

Four or five species of this genus have been credited to Ala-
bama, some arborescent and some shrubby, but within each group
they do not seem to differ in any important particular. Our arbor-
escent ones have been referred to C. occidentalis L., C. laevigata
Koch, C. Mississippiensis Bosc, and C. Smalli Beadle, which are
supposed to differ more or less in the dentation of the leaves,
length of pedicels, etc. But they all have about the same habitats
and economic properties, and the alleged differences are of no
particular concern to persons not botanists. For the present they
will be treated as one species, under the oldest name.

Celtis occidentalis, L. HACKBERRY. (SUGAR-BERRY. )
(Fig. 43)

A large or medium-sized tree, with unsymmetrical toothed
roughish leaves, and small berries (drupes) with large stones and
thin sweetish pulp. The bark is very characteristic, being com-
monly studded with warty protuberances, which may be an inch
high. Sometimes these run together and make an ordinary-look-
ing longitudinally ridged bark, or (in Florida at least) they may
be entirely absent, leaving a smooth gray bark scarcely distinguish-
able from that of the beech.

The tree is commonly cultivated for shade, especially in Mont-
gomery. ‘The wood is not durable, but is said to be used to some
extent for boxes, woodenware, and interior finish. (For further
information see Circular 75 of the U. S. Forest Service.) The
berries are edible, but have so little pulp around the stone that they

WH

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oa
v
a ee
a
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ae
So
os
Ss)
n
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AY
seven miles south of Ge

Celtis Mississippiensi
k, about
1913.

Fic. 43.
Bodka Cree

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27

ruary

150 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

are hardly worth bothering with. Some birds are fond of them,
though.
Grows mostly in river bottoms, especially in calcareous

regions.

1A. Lauderdale and Limestone Counties.

1B. Common along the Tennessee River. Also on limestone in Mor-
gan, Franklin and Blount Counties. (In this region the trees mostly have
entire leaves, and may be C. Mississippiensis.)

2A. Marriott’s Creek, Cullman County (Mohr, as C. Mississippiensis).

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties, mostly along the
Warrior River.

3. Along Coosa River and in Jones Valley flatwoods, etc.

6A. Franklin County to Elmore County.

6C. Hale and Montgomery Counties, and probably all the others.

7. Common; making up nearly 2% of the present forest.

9. Sumter, Marengo and Wilcox Counties.

10W. Wilcox County, and probably all the others.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

14. Common in the upper part of the delta.

Celtis pumila, Pursh. (C. crassifolia, Lam.? C. Georgiana,
Small ?)

C. pumila and C. Georgiana have been treated by some author-
ities as specifically and by others as only varietally distinct, but the
differences are obscure, as in the case of the larger hackberries
just mentioned, and it is easier to treat them as one, and even that
may not be very distinct from the arborescent ones. It is a crooked
shrub or small tree, with leaves usually thicker and rougher than
those of the common hackberry. It grows in dry rocky places,
sandy old fields, etc. (as C. occidentalis usually does in New Eng-
land), and seems to require protection from fire. It is occasionally
a pest in fields, something like the sassafras. It is probably com-
moner than the following statement indicates, for I may have
passed many roadside and old field specimens without making note
of them.

2A. Cullman County (referred to C. Georgiana by W. Wolf).

2B. Cliffs on Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.

5. Cliffs near “Lock 12” dam on the Coosa River, Chilton County.

6A. Roadside a few miles north of Northport, Tuscaloosa County.

6C. Common in sandy old fields, Autauga County, and along road-
sides and in dry woods near Montgomery.

Prairies near Gallion, Hale County (Mohr).
10E. Roadside three or four miles east of Troy.

MORACEAE 151
MORACEAE. Mutperry Famity.

About 55 genera and 100 species, mostly woody plants with
milky juice, in the warmer parts of the world. Some have edible
fruit (e.g., the fig and bread-fruit), some yield rubber, and some
are cultivated for shade, ornament, etc.

TOXYLON, Raf.

Toxylon pomiferum, Raf. (Maclura aurantiaca, Nutt.) OsacE
ORANGE. (Bolts D’ARC.)

A small thorny tree with large heavy compound fruits about
the size of a grape-fruit. Supposed to be native in the black
prairies near the Red River in Oklahoma and Texas, and perhaps
farther southwest. Planted for hedges in most of the eastern
states, usually in rich soils. ‘The yellow heart-wood is hard, heavy,
strong and durable, and is used for felloes (especially in arid
regions), posts, insulator-pins, cabinet work, and dyeing. The
Indians are said to have made bows of it, and this circumstance is
responsible for the French name.

In Alabama it escapes from cultivation a little in the black
belt, and possibly also in the Tennessee Valley. (These are the
regions most nearly resembling its natural home in Texas.) I

have seen it growing apparently wild in Pickens, Sumter and Perry
Counties.

PAPYRIUS. Lam. (Broussonetia, L/ Her.)

Papyrius papyrifera (L.) Kuntze. (PAPER) MULBERRY.

A medium-sized tree, with trunk usually leaning, crooked,
fluted, knobby, or branched low down, and rough lobed leaves.
Often planted for shade, but it has little to recommend it except
rapid growth. It sends up copious sprouts from the roots, and is
not easy to get rid of. The wood, like that of most other fast-
growing trees, is soft and lacking in durability, but it will serve
for fuel when there is nothing better to be had. In Japan, its
native country, the bark is said to be used for paper-making.

Runs wild in and around many of the older towns in Ala-
bama and other southern states, especially in gullies and other
damp shady places, around negro houses, warehouses, rubbish-
heaps, etc. It is hardly worth while to specify localities for it.

152 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

MORUS, L. Tur MULBERRIES.
Morus rubra, L. (CoMMON, oR RED) MULBERRY.

A small to medium-sized more or less crooked tree, blooming
in March and April, and ripening its edible fruit in our latitudes
about June. Sometimes cultivated for ornament or shade, or for
its fruit. The heart-wood is yellow and very durable, and used
for fence-posts where it can be had in sufficient quantity.

Grows in rich woods and bottoms, or sometimes in weedy
places ; frequent, but nowhere abundant.

1B. On limestone, Franklin County.

2B. Fayette, Walker and Tuscaloosa County.

3. Common, probably in every county.

5. Randolph and Lee Counties.

6A. Frequent from Lamar County to Chilton County (Mulberry
Creek).

6C. Greene County to Elmore County.

7. Common throughout.

8. Sumter and Crenshaw Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Crenshaw and Coffee Counties.

10W. Frequent throughout.

11. Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Around a limestone cave in southeastern corner of Covington
County.

13 or 14. Edges of the delta in Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Morus alba, L. (Wurtt) MULBERRY.

Native of China. A form known as VW. multicaulis was once
cultivated for food for silkworms, and it has run wild a little in
Mobile County, according to Mohr.

PLATANACEAE. PLANE-TREE FAMILY.

Consists only of the following genus, with one species in the
eastern United States and a few others in the West and in the
Mediterranean region. For the last forty years or so it has usually
been placed between the Hamamelidaceae and Rosaceae; but R. F.
Griggs (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 36 :389-395. 1909) suggests that
its affinities are with the Urticales, which seems reasonable.

PLATANACEHKAE 153

PLATANUS, Linnaeus. THE Sycamores. (PLANE-TREES of
the Old World)

Platanus occidentalis, L. Sycamore. (Called BurroNwoop in
New England. )

One of our largest hardwood trees, differing from all others
in eastern North America in its conspicuously spotted bark, the
older portions peeling off in large brown flakes and exposing the
whitish newer bark beneath. The inconspicuous flowers appear
with the leaves in spring.

It is planted in streets and parks in all the eastern states, and
is said to stand smoke better than any other tree. There is a little
prejudice against it however on account of the bark littering up
the ground and the fine stiff hairs which fall from the leaves in
spring and sometimes irritate human lungs, giving rise to what is
known in Europe as the “Platanus cough.” ‘That must be rare in
this country, but I have been told of a place in Georgia where all
the sycamores in the streets were cut down 25 years ago or more.
because they were believed to cause consumption.

The wood is rather difficult to work, and not very strong or
durable, but it is a favorite material for butchers’ chopping blocks.
on account of its compactness and large dimensions. It is said to
be the preferred material for tobacco boxes, especially in Vir-
ginia. More rarely it is made into veneering, furniture, interior
finish, and ox-yokes.

References: Brush 1.

The sycamore grows in moderately fertile soil along streams
of all sizes, and is widely distributed over the state outside of the
long-leaf pine regions. As a rule the more fertile the soil the
farther it extends up small streams. It seems to constitute nearly
5 per cent of the present forest in the Tennessee Valley, and nearly
as much in the black belt, but of course before the country was
settled, when the uplands were well wooded, its relative abundance
was much less. It seems to be rare in regions 1 C, 2 A, 10 E, 12
and 13, and absent or nearly so in 4, 6 B. and 15. South of the
black belt it is chiefly confined to the banks of the larger muddy
streams, extending down the Alabama River to near Stockton, the
Conecuh to near Brewton. the Pea to near Geneva, and the Chat-

154 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

tahoochee some distance down into Florida. It also acts like a
weed sometimes, growing in gullies and moderately damp and rich
woods where it could hardly have been originally.

LORANTHACEAE. MuistLerork FAamMILy

About 25 genera and over 800 species, shrubs or herbs, para-
sitic on the branches of trees and shrubs, mostly in tropical
America.

PHORADENDRON, Nuttall. (American) MISsTLETors.

Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. MISTLETOE,
(Fig. 44)

A small evergreen shrub, parasitic on various hardwood trees.
In any one neighborhood it seems to be partial to one genus of
trees, and it may possibly be divisible into several species, which
are to all appearances much alike but cannot be made to grow on
trees too different from that to which they have been accustomed
(analogous to some bacteria which look exactly alike under the
microscope but react differently to various culture media).

The mistletoe is used chiefly for Christmas decorations, and
large quantities have been shipped from Evergreen, Huntsville,
and various other places for that purpose. The leaves and branches
have some medicinal properties, but are not officinal. It is some-
times thought to be injurious to shade-trees,* but that has probably
been exaggerated. As it has its own green leaves to make starch,
etc., with, and grows very slowly, it ought not to be any more of a
burden to a tree than one of the tree’s own branches of the same
size. And if it killed the tree quickly it would be committing sui-
cide itself.

Its observed distribution will be given first by regions and
then by hosts, for the benefit of any one who may hereafter desire
to attack the problem of subdividing the species.

By regions it is distributed about as follows:

1A. Limestone County.

1B. Rather common, on Hicoria ovata, Quercus Phellos, Ulmus Amert-
cana, Platanus, Gleditsia, Acer saccharinum, Nyssa sylvatica, and Fraxinus.

1C. Colbert County, on Nyssa sylvatica.

*See W. L. Bray, The Mistletoe pest in the Southwest. U. S. Dept.
Agric., Bull. 166. 1910.

PEADANACE AE;

Fic. 44. Mistletoe on Quercus nigra on University campus.
February 9, 1906.

on

156 FCONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

2A. Scattered from Winston County to Cherokee County, on Quercus
Marylandica, Nyssa, ete.

2B. Walker, Jefferson, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties, on Castanea
dentata, Quercus Marylandica, Ulmus alata, Acer saccharinum, Nyssa syl-
vatica, etc.

3. Scattered from DeKalb to Shelby County, on Quercus Schneckii
(?), QO. nigra, O. Phellos, Nyssa sylvatica, ete.

5. Clay, Chilton, Coosa and Lee Counties, on Quercus Marylandica,
QO. migra, Nyssa sylvatica, etc.

6A. Common, on Populus, Betula, Quercus nigra, O. obtusa, QO. lauri-
folia (especially cultivated specimens of these three oaks), Celtis, Platanus,
Liquidambar, Prunus angustifolia, Prunus Caroliniana (cultivated), Acer
rubrum, Acer saccharinum, Nyssa sylvatica, N. biflora, N. uniflora, Frax-
mus.

6B. Chilton and Autauga Counties, on Nyssa biflora.

6C. Pickens County to Macon County, on Celtis, Acer saccharinwn,
and Nyssa biflora.

Common throughout, on Hicoria ovata, Populus, Quercus Mary-
landica, O. Phellos, Celtis, Platanus, Acer saccharinum, and Fraxinus Ameri-
cana.

8. Bullock and Pike Counties, on Liquidambar and Nyssa.

9. Sumter and Marengo Counties, on Hicoria ovata, Populus, Nyssa.

10E. Barbour, Pike, Dale and Covington Counties, mostly on Nyssa
biflora.

10W. Common, especially along rivers, on Populus, Betula, Liquidam-
bar, and Acer saccharinwm.

11. Washington County to Conecuh County, on Populus and Liquidam-
bar.

12. Frequent, mostly on Nyssa biflora.

13. Common, on Nyssa sylvatica and biflora.

14. Common in lower part of delta, on Nyssa biflora.

Its known distribution by hosts is about as follows:

Hicoria ovata. 1B. Jackson and Madison Counties. 7. Sumter and
Dallas Counties. 9. Sumter County.

Populus deltoides. 6A. Tuscaloosa County. 7. Sumter, Marengo.
8. Marengo. 9. Sumter, Marengo. 10W. Marengo, Choctaw, Clarke, Mon-
roe. (This is almost its only host along the Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers
in this region.) 11. Choctaw, Clarke, Washington.

Betula nigra. 6A. Tuscaloosa, Greene, Hale. 10W. Choctaw.

Castanea dentata. 2B. Tuscaloosa. 10W. Wilcox (cultivated?).

Ouercus Schneckti (?). 3. Talladega County.

Quercus Marylandica. 2A. Winston. 2B. Tuscaloosa, Bibb. 5. Coosa.
7. Sumter.

Ouercus nigra. 3. Shelby. 5. Chilton. 6A. Streets of Tuscaloosa.

Quercus obtusa and Quercus laurifolia (cultivated). 6A. Tuscaloosa
(city).

Ouercus Phellos. 1B. Morgan. 3. Jefferson. 7. Sumter.

Ulmus Americana. 1B. Jackson, Madison.

Ulmus alata. 2B. Jefferson.

Celtis occidentalis (?). 1B. Marshall. 6A. Bibb. 6C. Hale. 7. Sumter.

Toxylon pomiferum (cultivated). 6A. Tuscaloosa (city).

Papyrius papyrifera (cultivated). 6A. Tuscaloosa (city).
z Platanus occidentalis. 1B. Colbert. 6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb. 7. Hale,
rreene.

Liquidambar Styraciflua. 6A. Bibb. 8. Bullock. 10W. Clarke. 11.
Marke. 13. Washington.

Prunus angustifolia. 6A. Tuscaloosa.

Prunus Caroliniana (cultivated). 6A. Tuscaloosa (city).

LORANTHACEAE 157

Gleditsia triacanthos. 1B. Jackson County.

Acer leucoderme. 2B. Tuscaloosa County.

Acer saccharinum. 1B. Jackson, Madison, Marshall. 2B. Tuscaloosa.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Greene, Hale. 6C. Hale. 7. Hale. 10W. Marengo. (Con-
trast this with the entries under Populus aeltoides—a tree which grows in
most of the same places—above. )

Acer rubrum. 6A. Tuscaloosa County.

Cornus florida. 13. Baldwin County.

Nyssa sylvatica. 1A. Limestone, 1B(?). Madison. 1C. Colbert. 2A.
Marshall, DeKalb. 2B. Walker, Tuscaloosa. 3. Shelby. 5. Chilton, El-
more(?). 6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb. 13. Baldwin.

Nyssa biflora. 6A. Franklin, Tuscaloosa. 6B. Chilton, Autauga. 6C.
Pickens, Dallas, Macon. 8. Bullock. 10E. Pike, Dale. 10W. Sumter. 12.
Covington, Geneva, Houston. 13. Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia, Covington.
14. Mobile, Baldwin.

Nyssa uniflora. 6A. Tuscaloosa County.

Adelia acuminata. Choctaw Bluif, Clarke County.

Fraxinus Americana. 1B. Marshall. 6A. Tuscaloosa. 7. Sumter.

Diospyros Virginiana. 2B. or 6A. Near North Alabama Junction, Tus-
caloosa County.

No doubt this list can be considerably extended; but when all
the facts are in, it will probably be found that in any one region
the mistletoe (assuming it to be all one species) is confined to cer-
tain species of trees, and rare or absent on others on which one
might reasonably expect it. But it may be adapting itself to more
and more species all the time, as shown by its occasional occurrence
on cultivated trees, which it could have had no experience with up
to say 100 years ago.

SANTALACEAE. Sanpat-woop Fami_y.
NESTRONIA, Rafinesque. (Darbya, Gray)
Nestronia umbellulata, Rai.

A rare shrub, so little known that it has no common name and
no known use. Grows in dry or rich woods.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). A single staminate specimen seen by
the writer in dry woods near east fork of Flint Creek north of Vinemont,
in bloom, May 15, 1928. A few others have been seen in the same county
by W. Wolf.

5. Lee County (Baker & Farle).

Pyrularia pubera, Mx., another shrub nearly as rare, belonging to the
same family, which has been found in rich woods at one or two places in
the Piedmont region of Georgia, and more commonly in the mountains of
North Carolina, is credited to Alabama in Small’s Flora of the Southeast-
ern United States, but without definite locality and probably without suf-
ficient evidence.

158 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE. HEart-LeEaF FAMILY

Includes about 5 genera and 200 species, mostly South Amer-

ican woody vines. Some cultivated for ornament, and some
medicinal.

ARISTOLOCHIA, L.

This genus is represented in Alabama by two or three herbs
( Virginia snake-root, etc.) and one or two woody vines, which are
called pipe-vine or Dutchman’s pipe (from the curiously shaped
flowers) in the books, but seem to have no bona-fide common
name in this part of the world. The flowers and fruit are not
often seen, because they are apt to be high up in the trees, and it
is possible that every vine does not bloom every year. (I never
saw the flowers until 1927.) The heart-leaf (Asaruim) belongs to
the same family.

Aristolochia tomentosa, Sims.

A high-climbing twining vine, with very porous stems, an
inch or less in diameter, and large heart-shaped deciduous leaves.
3looms in April, and perhaps later. It is occasionally cultivated
for ornament, but is liable to spread and become a nuisance.

Grows mostly on banks of rivers and creeks, in rather rich
soils.

1B. Base of Sand Mountain, Jackson County (Harbison). Along
Tennessee River near Florence (not seen in leaf, but presumed to be this
species). Morgan County.

2B. Along Mulberry Fork of Warrior River, Blount County (Mohr).
Along Warrior River and tdibutaries, Jefferson County.

3. Along Coosa River near Stemly and Childersburg, Talladega
County.

6A. Franklin, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6C. Montgomery County. \

7. Along Tombigbee River near Demopolis, and along Cahaba River
east of Marion Junction and also just north of Cahaba.

10W. Along Alamuchee Creek near York.
11 (?). Clarke County (Denny). Monroe County.

Aristolochia macrophylla. Lam. (A. Sipho. 1/Her.), is said by Dr.
Mohr to have been collected in Winston County by Judge Peters.

POLYGONACEAE. Buckwueat FAMILY

Includes 30 or 40 genera and about 800 species, widely dis-
tributed, mostly herbs. Many are weeds, but some have edible
foliage (e.g., rhubarb), fruit or seeds (e.g., buckwheat), and
some are medicinal. The trees are chiefly tropical.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE 159
BRUNNICHIA, Banks.

Only one species, and that apparently has no common name.
Brunnichia cirrhosa, Banks.

A deciduous woody vine, climbing by tendrils, with porous
stems sometimes an inch in diameter, and dry winged fruits in
loose clusters which hang on all winter. Blooms in June and July.
Economic properties unknown.

Grows on river and creek banks and in calcareous lowlands,
mostly in the coastal plain. Occasionally spreads along railroad
embankments, etc., near its natural habitats. Probab!y more
abundant in Alabama than anywhere else.

1A. Along Cypress Creek near Florence, and Tennessee River near
Florence and Riverton. Some of the largest specimens are in this region.

2B. Near Corona, Walker County. Along Warrior River in Jeffer-
son and Tuscaloosa Counties, as far up as Sayre.

5. Along Channahatchee Creek near Eclectic, Elmore County.

6A. Fayette, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Chilton Counties.

6C. Greene, Hale and Dallas Counties.

7. Common, probably in all the counties.

8. Marengo, Dallas, Wilcox and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter and Wilcox Counties.

10K. Crenshaw County.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Clarke, Wilcox, Monroe, Butler.

11. Frequent in all the counties. ;

12. Geneva and Houston Counties.
14 (7). Mobile County (Mohr).

POLYGONELLA, Mx.

Herbs or small shrubs, with no known economic properties,
and no common names in general use. They bloom mostly in
summer and _ fall.

Polygonella polygama (Vent.) Gray.
“OcToBER Flower” (according to Mohr).

A small shrub, with small narrow leaves and numerous small
pinkish flowers in late fall.

Grows on sandy beaches and old dunes, in the coast strip.
Dr. Mohr found it on the shores of Fish River Bay and Perdido
Bay, and I have seen it south of Orange Beach; all in Baldwin
County.

160 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Polygonella Americana (F. & M.) Small. (P. Metsneriana,
Shuttl. )

Taller than the preceding, but still almost herb-like. Blooms
in summer. In Georgia I have seen it only in sand, but Dr. Mohr
reports it as having been found on limestone hills in Blount County
by one of his nieces. It is evidently rare in Alabama, and I have
not met it in this state at all.

1B (?) “Limestone hills,’ Warnock Mountain, Blount County (Mohr).

2A. Near Pisgah, Jackson County (Mohr). In sand along Bryant’s
Creek (Harbison). These two records may possibly refer to the same
locality, or nearly so.

(There are a few other plants which seem to grow equally well in sand
and on limestone, and possibly the absence of earthworms is the essential
factor for them.)

MAGNOLIACEAE 161
MAGNOLIACEAE. Macno.ia FAmMILy

About 10 genera and 80 species, trees and shrubs, natives of
North America and Asia. Many are cultivated for ornament.

MAGNOLIA, Linnaeus. THe Macnortas, ete.

Magnolia grandiflora, L. (MW. foctida, Sarg.)
MAGNOLIA (LOBLOLLY. )

(Map 16, Fig. 45)

A magnificent evergreen tree, well known throughout the
South. Its leaves are the largest of any of our evergreens except
the palms and yuccas, but they vary in size on different trees.
This variation may be correlated with the fertility of the soil, but
it seems to have become more or less fixed, for large and small-
leaved forms are sometimes cultivated side by side in the same
soil without losing their characteristics. ‘The flowers too are not
exceeded in size by anything else in our flora. It blooms from
April to June, and ripens its seeds four or five months later.

Planted for ornament all over the South except in the moun-
tains and southern Florida, and said to be hardy as far north as
Philadelphia. It also grows very well in California, where the
climate differs greatly from that of its native home, in having no
rain in summer. Four or five varieties are recognized by horticul-
turists.

Its wood is something like that of its “cousin” the yellow pop-
lar (discussed a few pages farther on). It is not usually abundant
enough in any one neighborhood to be an important source of lum-
ber, and it is possible that some people would hesitate to destroy
such a beautiful tree (I never heard of one being cut in Georgia
when I was living there 30 to 35 years ago). But now that other
kinds of wood are getting scarcer, and good roads and motor
trucks make all the forests more accessible, the magnolia’s beauty
does not save it. Even half a century ago it was being cut for
fuel in Mississippi, according to Dr. Mohr (‘Tenth Census U. S.,
vol. 9, p. 535). About the same time, or a little later, it was being
made into pumps and porch columns at Memphis (largely from

162 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Alabama material, for it does not grow wild within 200 miles of
Memphis), and furniture at New Orleans. It was being used in
the basket factories at Evergreen and Flomaton as long ago as
1905. Recently it has been used more extensively for such prosaic
articles as crates, made by the veneer process; and last year
(1927) a veneer manufacturer in Montgomery was advertising for
magnolia logs, 18 inches and over in diameter, and 14 feet long.

The leafy twigs are shipped from Evergreen and perhaps
elsewhere for winter decorations, and thousands of the flowers
are picked every year (largely from cultivated trees, however)
for temporary ornamental purposes, but they turn brown and fall
to pieces in two or three days. Single leaves can be used for
wreaths and other decorations, and they keep their shape and color
a long time.

In its native haunts the magnolia is strictly confined to the
coastal plain.* It grows in hammocks, bottoms, ravines, and on
bluffs, all of which are pretty well protected from fire. It is so
conspicuous, especially in winter, that its range is known pretty
accurately, and is not likely to be extended much by future explora-
tions.

6A. Creek bottoms about six miles east of Wetumpka, Elmore County.
Near Shorter’s, Macon County.

6C. Woods near Autauga and Pine Creeks, from Prattville a few
miles southeastward.

7. Montgomery, Macon and Bullock Counties. Dallas County (Cocks).
Apparently rare or wanting farther west in the black belt, perhaps because
the summers are too dry or the soil too rich.

8. Frequent throughout, except in the western portions.
9. Sumter and Wilcox Counties.

10E, 10W. Common; making perhaps two or three percent of the
present forest.

11. Very common.
12, 13. Common in hammocks.

15. Near Fairhope, Baldwin County.

*There are some specimens a few feet tall in dry woods near Cullman,
believed to have come from seeds from cultivated trees near by, dropped
by birds; but it does not seem to have been previously recorded as escaping
from cultivation.

163

MAGNOLIACEAE

goose a

= ‘

, about

randiflora

g

Magnolia

f

ge, in eastern edge of Autauga

age oO

k and foli

Trun

45.
a mile north of Reese’s Ferry brid

Fic.

June 9, 1927.

County.

164 KECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA
Magnolia glauca, L.* (WHITE, OR SWEET) Bay.
(Map 16)

Usually a smaller tree than the preceding, with smaller leaves
which are white beneath (the under surfaces conspicuous from a
distance when the leaves are rustled by a breeze), and much smaller
flowers. I have seen a specimen three feet in diameter on Luxa-
palila Creek in Fayette County, but it is usually less than a foot in
diameter and not more than 30 or 40 feet tall; and in flat pine
woods with sour perpetually moist soil it may be only a shrub,
blooming when two feet tall. The leaves usually last through the
winter, and fall just as the new ones come out in April; but farther
north, where the winters are colder, or in cultivated specimens in
richer soils, the tree may be completely bare in winter. A small
tree on the University campus, obtained from a northern nursery,
loses all its leaves in midwinter, while some in yards in Tuscaloosa,
presumably brought in from the woods near by, are just as ever-
green as.the wild ones. The bay blooms in late spring, about the
same time as the magnolia, and sporadically through the summer.

It is occasionally cultivated for ornament, but is decidedly in-
ferior to MW. grandiflora. ‘Two varieties have been recognized by
horticulturists, one of them probably a hybrid. The dried bark

*In the first edition of Linnaeus’s Species Plantarum (1753), which is
taken as the starting point of botanical nomenclature, our two evergreen
Magnolias were described as varieties (glauca and foetida) of one species
(M. Virginiana), and some of the deciduous species as other varieties of
the same. In the second edition, ten years later, Linnaeus made them sep-
arate species, calling them W. glauca and M. grandiflora. Some of our
nomenclature reformers of a generation ago decided that according to the
new rules these species should be called M. Virginiana and M. foetida. But
a later revision of the rules, which did not allow varietal names to take
precedence over specific names, threw out M/. foctida and restored the name
grandiflora for that species. The name Virginiana was still retained for
the bay, however, for no other reason than because that happened to be the
first of the varieties described under that specific name (which Linnaeus
later discarded). It seems more logical, and less confusing, to follow Lin-
naeus’s intentions and all 19th century usage, and call the bay MW. glauca,
regardless of a strict application of the rules.

The Alabama representatives of this species, or most of them, have
been separated from the northern form by Prof. Sargent, under the name
of Magnolia Virginiana australis, which is said to differ in having silky
pubescence on the branchlets and pedicels. It has not yet been determined
whether the two forms intergrade or overlap, or have entirely separate
ranges; or whether any of the Alabama trees are referable to the northern
form.

MAGNOLIACEAE 165

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF
THE TWO EVERGREEN MAGNOLIAS

(INLAND wimiTs)

Map 16. Inland limits of Magnolia glauca and M. grandiflora.

166 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

has aromatic, tonic, and stimulant properties, and has been held
in high esteem, but is no longer officinal. ‘The wood is light, soft,
and easily worked, but is not used much, no doubt chiefly because
of its usually small dimensions. It is or has been used for fence-
rails in Marion and perhaps other counties, charcoal in Chilton
County, baskets at Evergreen and Flomaton, and brick-kiln fuel
at Flomaton. It is said to be also good for broom-handles.

The bay grows in wet woods, non-alluvial swamps, sandy bogs,
etc., where the water does not fluctuate much with the seasons, and
it is usually abundant wherever it grows. It ranges nearly through-
out the state south of the Tennessee Valley (where no species of
Magnolia is known in the wild state). Its approximate inland
limit is shown on the accompanying map, and its known distri-
bution by regions is as follows:

2A. Marshall, Cherokee and Etowah Counties. (See Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 33:530. 1906.) Attains dimensions of 9 inches by 50 feet near
Albertville, and a diameter of a foot near the south end of Lookout Moun-
tain.

2B. Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Shelby Counties.

3. Not. common. Known from Cherokee, Etowah, Blount, Talladega,
Shelby, Bibb and Tuscaloosa Counties, but only one or two places (in the
valley region) in each county.

_ 4. Frequent in wet ravines, especially on the sunny side of the moun-
tains.

5. Scattered nearly throughout, but apparently wanting from an area
around Lafayette, where the soil is a little too rich for it. (See remarks
on this region under Pinus polustris. Also Map 2.) Grows a foot and a
half in diameter and fifty feet tall near Knight’s Ferry, Chilton County.

6A. Ranges north to Franklin County, where specimens 1x40 feet
have been seen near Hodges. Possibly also near Red Bay, which is said to
be named for this tree, though “red” is never a part of its name. Very
common from southern Marion County southeastward; and the largest
specimen on record anywhere is in Fayette County (if it is still standing).

6B. Common, especially in Chilton County.

6C. Frequent.

7. Occasional in sandy places in Dallas and Lowndes Counties (some-
thing like Pinus palustris).

8. Frequent.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Common throughout.

10W. Frequent, except in Wilcox County.

11. Frequent.

12. Washington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Very. common, but usually rather small. Shrubby in savannas in
some parts of Washington County.

14. Common near the lower end of the delta, where the water is just
as muddy as it is farther up, but cannot fluctuate much, on account of the
proximity of the bay. It probably extends only a few miles upstream, for
it is entirely wanting in the delta in the latitude of Mount Vernon.

15. Baldwin County.

MAGNOLIACEAEF . 167

Magnolia tripetala, L. (MW. Umbrella, Lam.) CucuMBER TREE.

A small tree, with deciduous leaves sometimes two feet long
and nearly half as wide. Specimens more than six inches in
diameter and 30 feet tall are rare or unknown. Blooms in April.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament, like most of the other
Magnolias. The bark is a non-officinal drug.

Rather rare, in rich woods.

2A. Winston County (Mohr). Along Ejight-mile Creek, Cullman
County (W. Wolf). On Lookout Mountain in Cherokee County.

2B. Ravine near Tidewater (Lock 13), Tuscaloosa County.

5. Cleburne, Clay and Chilton Counties.

6A. Hale and Bibb Counties.

6B. Northwestern corner of Bibb County; rare.

6C. Prattville (Mohr). Along Pine Creek near Dosterville.

10W. Near Choctaw Corner, Clarke County (Tuomey). Mountains
near West Butler, Choctaw County.

11 (?). Clarke County (EK. A. Smith).

Magnolia pyramidata, Pursh. CUCUMBER TREE

This was long regarded as synonymous with M. Fraseri,
Lam., a species said to be chiefly confined to the southern Appa-
lachian region, while M. pyramidata grows mostly in the coastal
plain. (See Sargent, Trees and Shrubs 1:101. 1903.) Prof. Sar-
gent in the latest edition of his Manual of Trees credits MW. Fraseri
to northern Alabama, but without definite locality. The supposed
differences between these two species are not conspicuous, and I
have never learned to distinguish them, and am consequently re-
ferring all the Alabama specimens for the present to M/. pyramui-
data.

A small tree, with leaves shaped something like those of the
next species, but much smaller, and green on both sides. It is oc-
casionally cultivated for ornament.

One of our rarer trees, growing in rich woods well protected
from fire, like the other cucumber trees.

5. Near Knight’s Ferry, Chilton County (Mohr).
6A. Havana glen, Hale County. Southeastern part of Bibb County.
7. Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Near rivers and creeks, Pike, Coffee and Covington Counties.
Dale County (Sargent). Occasionally 9 inches by 40 feet in Coffee County.

10W. Butler and Monroe Counties. Clarke County (Tuomey).
11. Clarke County (Denny).
12. Along Pea River near Geneva; rare.

168 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Magnolia macrophylla, Mx. (LArcE-LEAVED) CUCUMBER TREE.
(Map 17, Fig. 46)

A small or medium-sized tree, with the largest leaves of any
North American tree outside of the palms. They are rather thin,
white beneath, and sometimes over a foot wide and nearly a yard
long. When they fall to the ground they usually land upside
down, and their white under surfaces are then conspicuous in the
autumn woods. (See Monograph 8, fig. 10.) Dr. Mohr gives its
maximum diameter as 30 inches (in the “upper division of the
coast pine belt”, presumably in the western division of the south-
ern red hills), but the largest trees I have seen are about 11 inches
by 60 feet, and 14 inches by 20 feet, in region 2 B, both in Tus-
caloosa County. On the average it is probably not more than
three or four inches in diameter and ten feet tall. The flowers
are about the same size as those of M. grandiflora, and appear
mostly in May. When unfolding they are vase-shaped, or con-
stricted a little above the middle.

This is too rare and usually too small to be used for any-
thing but ornamental purposes. It is often cultivated in the North,
and is sold by nurserymen at a much higher price than any other
native Magnolia. It does not seem to take so readily to cultivation
as some of the others.

There is probably more of this striking little tree in Alabama
than in all the rest of the world. Its distribution within the state
is very irregular (see map), and hard to explain on a basis of
environmental factors. It grows mostly in ravines and on bluffs,
where there is plenty of humus and adequate protection from
fire. In the regions where it is most abundant, as in Tuscaloosa
County, it sometimes springs up in clearings almost like a weed.

2A. Franklin, Marion, Lawrence, Winston and Cullman Counties. In
Cullman County it seems to be chiefly confined to rocky gorges of Flint
Creek and its tributaries, north of Vinemont, but I have seen a leaf in the
southwestern part of the county, near Bremen, said to have come from
woods near by. It is quite common in southern Lawrence County.

2B. Fayette, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties. Common in the last,
but never observed in Jefferson, though it occurs on the other side of it in
Blount.

3. Near Roden, Blount County.

4. Ravine on Coldwater Mountain, Calhoun County.

5. Clay, Coosa, Chilton, and perhaps Chambers County.

MAGNOLIACEAE 169

Fic. 46. Twig of Magnolia macrophylla with leaves and a flower,
from bluffs of Warrior River about 12 miles above Tuscaloosa. May 6,

1911.

6A. Common from Franklin County (Spruce Pine) to Autauga
County, especially in Tuscaloosa County.

6B. Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Chilton Counties.
6C. Greene County.

7. Dallas County (Cocks).

10W, 11. Frequent in most of the counties.
13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

170 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

;

> MAP - ALABAMA
XE SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

pee MAGNOLIA MACROPHYLLA |
Ls 2

RMH 1926

Map 17. Approximate distribution of Magnolia macrophylla. (Note
how this and most of the species shown on the maps following seem to
avoid the black belt.) The range should have been shown as covering more
of Lawrence County and less ef Cullman.

MAGNOLIACEAE Wl

Magnolia acuminata, L. CucuMBER TREE.

A stately deciduous tree, occasionally two feet in diameter
and 75 feet tall. Blooms in April. It has furrowed bark, unlike
the other magnolias, and its leaves are quite differently shaped
from the evergreen species and from the small cucumber trees dis-
cussed above. These differences, together with a few less con-
spicuous ones, have led some authors to put it in a different genus,
Tulipastrum.

Occasionally cultivated for shade or ornament. Chiefly valu-
able for its wood, which is very much like yellow poplar, but there
is not enough of it in Alabama to be of commercial importance.
In some other states it is said to be used for pumps, hoe-handles,
woodenware, boxes, ete.

Grows in rich woods, ravines, bluffs, etc., but is one of our
rarer trees, usually not more than one or two specimens being vis-
ible at a time.

A. Madison and Cullman Counties (Mohr).

B. Fayette, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

A. Lamar (Mohr), Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Chilton Counties.
6C. Greene County.

6C or 7. Ravines at House Bluif, Autauga County.

10E. Pike (Mohr), Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Wilcox, Choctaw, Monroe and Butler Counties.

1. Frequent, in Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.
13. Near Stockton, Baldwin County (Mohr).

Magnolia cordata, Mx.

This is a little-understood and somewhat mysterious species,
or perhaps only a variety. It is supposed to differ from M.
acuminata in being a smaller tree, with somewhat differently
shaped leaves and smaller yellow flowers. It was discovered by
Andre Michaux somewhere near the head of the Savannah River
in the latter part of the 18th century, and was soon transplanted
by him or some of his contemporaries to European gardens, and
later brought back from there to some of the northern states,
where it is still cultivated. Nothing exactly like it was seen again
in the wild state for over 100 years; but in the meanwhile a few
trees referred to this species had been found in the mountains of

172 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

North Carolina and Georgia, and (by Dr. Mohr in 1880 or 1882)
in Winston County, Ala. (See Mohr’s Plant Life, pp. 72, 505.)

More recently what is believed to be the true Magnolia cor-
data has been found in eastern central Georgia by sons of the late
P. J. Berckmans, nurseryman, and in Sumter and Choctaw Coun-
ties, Alabama, by W. W. Ashe. (See Sudworth’s Check List,
p 121, also Ashe 4 in bibliography.) On a visit to Tuscaloosa in
August, 1926, Mr. Ashe reported having just found the same thing
a few miles from Duncanville, in Tuscaloosa County.

The supposed true M/. cordata is none too distinct from M.
acuminata, and if the trees formerly referred to it are intermediate,
they furnish an additional argument against its validity as a spe-
cies. Further study might reveal some real differences, though.

LIRIODENDRON, Linnaeus. (Tutte TREE).

Liriodendron Tulipifera, L. YELLow (or sometimes WHITE)
Popiar. (Sometimes called WHritTEWoop and ‘Tutte Poplar
in the North.)

One of our largest, handsomest and commonest deciduous
trees; too well known to require any description. It grows re-
markably straight and tall, sometimes several feet in diameter and
100 feet tall. There are rumors or traditions of trees as much as
ten feet in diameter; but such a giant would hardly escape the
lumberman now, unless it was hollow, and the largest one I have
seen in Alabama was about five feet, in Elmore County.

The uses of this tree are legion. It is planted a good deal in
parks, especially in the North, and horticulturists recognize three
or four varieties. ‘The wood is light, soft, and easily worked, with
a close straight grain, and is used for many of the same purposes
as the pines. Its principal uses are for “mill-work”, boxes and
crates, furniture, bee-hives, pumps, porch columns, and parts of
wagons, carriages, and cotton gins. It serves to a lesser extent
for shingles, weatherboards, fence-palings, baskets, crossties,
wood-pulp, and brick-kiln fuel. In Middle Tennessee, where pines
are scarce, the poplar largely takes their place, and many log cab-
ins are said to have been built of it. It is being used for cross-

MAGNOLIACEAE 173

ties (after being creosoted) in some parts of Alabama right now,
but it is not well adapted for that purpose, being too soft. Next
to some of the pines, it has probably been sawn into lumber more
than any other tree in the South, so that the existing supply is now
only a fraction of what it once was.

The inner bark, especially of the root, has tonic, stimulant, and
diaphoretic properties, and it has been used a good deal in domes-
tic medicine in the rural districts, but is not officinal. More in-
formation about the uses of this tree can be found in Circular 93

of the U. S. Forest Service.

The yellow poplar seems to prefer slightly damp non-calcareous
soils, with plenty of humus and reasonable protection from fire,
but no standing water. It is occasionally found on or near lime-
stone outcrops, however, especially near Suggsville. It grows in

>

every county, and seems to constitute from two to four per cent
of the present forest of nearly every region, except 14 and 15.
It is most abundant in the Piedmont region, and uncommon in the
black belt.

ILLICIUM, Linnaeus. (Srar-Antse).

Illicium Floridanum, Ellis.
LAUREL. STINKING LAUREL. STINKING Bay. STINK-BUSH.

(Map 18, Fig. 47)

A large handsome aromatic evergreen shrub, with odd-looking
ill-scented dark red flowers scattered singly along the branches,
blooming in April and early May. Easily recognized by the odor
which is given off by the leaves, especially when bruised, and is
much like turpentine, and not as unpleasant as some of the com-
mon names would suggest. (These names, however, may possibly
allude to the flowers.) Bartram, in his Travels, speaks enthusi-
astically of the “fragrant groves of sweet I/licium,’ which he saw
in southern Alabama about 150 years ago.

Notwithstanding its beauty and its aromatic properties, [
have never heard of this species being cultivated or used in any
way; but it deserves chemical investigation. It ought at least to
have some medicinal properties, like its Chinese relatives.

ECONOMIC BOTANY

Fic. 47. Illiciwm in non-alluvial

OF ALABAMA

swamp about two miles
south of Tuscaloosa. December 28, 1912.

MAGNOLIACEAE 175

' a
ee

PRLOLPY LD

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

' / ‘
nw) ees ILLICIUM FLORIDANUM

RMH 1926

Map 18. Approximate distribution of J/licium Floridanwn.

176 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

It grows typically neither in swamps nor in hammocks, but
between them, at the edges of the swamps, in situations pretty
well shaded and protected from fire, but seldom if ever inundated.
Like Magnolia macrophylla, it seems to be more abundant in Ala-
bama than in all the rest of the world. (It is unknown in Geor-
gia, though it ranges southeastward to Middle Florida.) It is
chiefly confined to the coastal plain, and its known distribution is
shown on the accompanying map. By regions the records are as
follows :

2B. Several places in Tuscaloosa County, on both sides of the War-
rior River.*

3. Near Woodstock, Bibb County.

5. Not far from the Coosa River in Chilton and Coosa Counties. Lee
County (Earle).

6A. Common from Marion County to Elmore County. (See Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club, 33:530-531. 1906.)

6B. Frequent.

6C. Perry, Autauga and Macon Counties; rather rare.

8. Conecuh River bottoms north of Troy.

10E. Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Washington County.

13. Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia and Geneva Counties.

SCHIZANDRA, Michaux.

Schizandra coccinea, Mx. (WILpD SARSAPARILLA )

A woody vine, with red flowers in June and red berries in
August. It has aromatic properties, which are sometimes em-
ployed in domestic medicine.

Grows in rich woods, and doubtless requires protection from
fire, like most other vines. It seems to be rare. Dr. Mohr knew
it only from near Luther’s Store, in Marengo County, and I have
seen what I take to be the same thing a few miles northeast of
Claiborne. Both localities are in region 10W. I have never seen
its flowers or fruit.

ANONACEAE. Cusvarp APPLE FAMILY.

About 50 genera and 600 species, trees, shrubs and vines,
mostly in the Old World tropics. Some have edible fruit, and
some are cultivated for ornament, etc.

*I,aurel Branch, on the west side of the river, probably takes its name
from this plant. There is plenty of AKalmia there too, but that does not
seem to be called laurel by the natives in this part of the world.

ANONACEAE 177

ASIMINA, Adanson. THE PAwpaws.*

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal.
(CoMMON, OR NorTHERN) PAwpaw.

Sometimes a small tree, 20 or 25 feet tall, but oftener a large
erect shrub with few branches. The flowers are dull greenish pur-
ple, and appear just before the leaves in spring. It is sold by
nurserymen for ornamental purposes, but has no particular attrac-
tion except that it is something different. Its bark is said to have
been made into ropes and mats in Mississippi. The fruit is more
or less edible, but not at all abundant, and therefore little known.
The seeds are supposed to have some medicinal properties.

Rather rare with us, in rich woods and bottoms.

1A. Along Cypress Creek near Florence, and on the south side of
Mussel Shoals. (One specimen seen there about 8 inches by 30 feet.)

1B. Near Plymouth Rock Landing on ‘Tennessee River, Morgan
County.

2B. Near Corona, Walker County. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Blount, St. Clair and Talladega Counties.

5. South of Erin, Clay County (if identified correctly).

6A. Mulberry Creek bottoms near Maplesville.

6C. Autauga and Montgomery Counties (Mohr).

7. Sandy bank of Cahaba River east of Marion Junction.

Asimina parviflora (Mx.) Dunal. PAWPAW.

similar to A, triloba except in sizé, being seldom more than
three or four feet tall, and having leaves and flowers only about
half as large; but it is sometimes hard to tell large specimens of
this from small ones of the preceding. The fruit is more or less
edible, but is rather scarce, averaging probably not more than one
to a plant.

Grows in dry but moderately rich woods and hammocks, pro-
tected from fire nearly all the time. Widely distributed but no-
where abundant. Not known in the Tennessee Valley.

2A. DeKalb and Blount Counties. Cullman County (Mohr).

2B. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Talladega County, and doubtless others.

4. Calhoun, Clay and Coosa Counties.

5. Clay, Coosa, Tallapoosa and Elmore Counties. Lee County (Baker
and Earle).

6A, 6B. Tuscaloosa County.

6C. Autauga County.

7. Montgomery County.

*This word is sometimes spelled “papaw”, but that form belongs more
properly to the papaw or papaya (Carica Papaya, L.), a tropical food plant
of a different family.

178 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

8. Sumter County.

10E. Pike, Henry, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Wilcox County (Buckley). Choctaw and Butler Counties.
11. Clarke County.

12. Washington, Covington and Geneva Counties.

13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr). Escambia County.

Asimina angustifolia, Gray. (Formerly confused with A.
pygmaea. )*

A low shrub with narrow leathery leaves and rather large
cream-colored flowers, appearing in summer. Fruit doubtless
edible, like that of the other species.

Grows in dry sand, where the surrounding vegetation is too

sparse to carry fire, in long-leaf pine regions.

10E. Dale County (E. A. Smith).
12, 13. Geneva County.

RANUNCULACEAE. = CrowFoor or Butrercup FAMILy.

A large family in temperate regions, represented almost en-
tirely by herbs, but one species in the eastern United States is a
low shrub.

XANTHORRHIZA, Marshall. (Zanthorhiza, L Her.)
(Only one species. )

Xanthorriza simplicissima, Marsh. (Z. apifolia, L/Her.)
YELLOW-ROOT.

A low creeping shrub with essentially unbranched slender
crooked knotty stems rising scarcely a foot above the ground, and
bearing a bunch of parsley-like deciduous leaves at the top. The
roots and inner bark are bright yellow, whence the name. The
flowers are dark purple, small and delicate, in loose clusters, ap-
pearing in March and April.

This has some use as an ornamental plant. One nursery-
man’s catalogue says of it:—‘‘Undoubtedly the finest American
undershrub for planting under trees, along roadways, walks and
borders, or where conditions of extreme moisture prevail... .
Now used by the thousands in parks and private grounds.” An-
other says:—‘Very ornamental. Every year it is being used more
extensively as an under-planting and ground cover, giving a soft
fern-like aspect of singular beauty.’’ The bark of the root has

*See G. V. Nash, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 23 :240-242, 1896.

RANUNCULACEAE 179

been used in dyeing and domestic medicine. In Dekalb County
in 1905 I was told that it is a remedy for sore mouth; and when
the pellagra scare came on, some years later, it was among the
remedies recommended for that.

Grows mostly on shaded banks of clear swift branches, in
non-caleareous regions. Widely distributed over the state, but

commonest northward.

2A. Madison (Mohr), Cullman, Marion, DeKalb, Cherokee and Blount
Counties.

2A. Walker and Jefferson Counties.

4. Common along mountain streams in Clay County.

5. Randolph and Chilton Counties.

6A. Marion and Chilton Counties.

6B. Bibb and Autauga Counties.

6C. Near Prattville, and along Uchee Creek, Russell County.

10W. Choctaw and Monroe Counties, mostly among the Buhrstone
mountains.

10W or 11. Clarke County (Mohr).

13. Mobile County (Mohr).

CALYCANTHACEAE. SweEet-sHruB FaAmILy.

A small family with 2 genera and about 6 species, shrubs,
in North America and eastern Asia.

CALYCANTHUS, Linnaeus. (Butneria, Duhamel). THe SwWEET-SHRUBS.

Two species of this genus are credited to Alabama by Mohr
and four by Small, but the characters separating them are so ob-
scure that I have never been able to distinguish them in the field,
and for the present will refer them all to the earliest described
species.

Calycanthus floridus, L. SWEET-SHRUB.

A medium-sized deciduous shrub, with comparatively large
but inconspicuous fragrant dark purple flowers, which appear
about the same time as the leaves in spring, and last until May.
School-children like to gather the flowers and wrap them in their
handkerchiefs so as to enjoy the fragrance all day. The bark is
supposed to have some medicinal properties, and Dr. Mohr says
one of the species is ‘deleterious to cattle.’ The shrub is some-
times cultivated for ornament.

Grows mostly on bluffs and in ravines, or in other rich woods
proteeted from fire and well supplied with humus, though the soil
may be sandy. Widely distributed but not abundant. Dr. Mohr

180 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

reported one species only from the hill country and the other only
from south of the black belt, and it is possible that they are sep-
arated in that way, but if so it is not at present apparent which
species the specimens in the coastal plain north of the black belt
should be referred to.

2A. Dekalb County (Mohr). Near Mulberry Fork of Warrior River
above Bangor, Blount County.

2B. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Blount, St. Clair (Mohr) and Talladega Counties.

4. Calhoun and Clay Counties.

5. Clay, Randolph, Chilton and Chambers Counties. Lee County
(Baker & Earle).

6B. About two miles east of Booth, Autauga County. (See Torreya
24:82. 1924.)

6C. Rich woods about a mile southwest of Booth, and along Pine
Creek below Dosterville, Autauga County.

10W. Choctaw and Butler Counties.

10W or 11. Clarke County.

13. Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties (Mohr).

LAURACEAE. Laure, FAMILY.

The laurel from which the ancient Romans made wreaths to
crown their heroes and champions with is Laurus nobilis, a Euro-
pean member of this family, often cultivated in tubs in northern
cities, and less frequently outdoors in the South. The avocado,
cinnamon, camphor, and bay rum also come from this family,
which includes about 40 genera and 1,000 species, mostly tropical.
All are trees or shrubs, with aromatic properties. ‘The various
plants commonly called laurel in this country have evergreen leaves
something like the European laurel, but belong to quite different
families.

PERSEA, Gaertner. (Zamala, Raf.) Tur Sweet or Rep Bays.

Persea Borbonia (L,.) Spreng. (P. Carolinensis (Mx.) Nees.)
Rep Bay.

A medium-sized aromatic evergreen tree, with crooked or
leaning trunk, seldom exceeding a foot in diameter, and furrowed
brown bark. The wood is something like mahogany, and takes a
fine polish, but the tree is too small and scarce in Alabama to be of
any economic importance.

Grows in hammocks and bottoms, in the coastal plain.

7. Several places along Catoma Creek, Montgomery County. Rare in
Dallas County (Cocks).

10£. In the pocosin, Pike County.

10W. Rich woods a few miles northeast of Claiborne.

11. Conecuh County.

13. Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties (Mohr).

15. Near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

LAURACEAE

co
—

Persea pubescens (Pursh) Sarg. (P. Carolinensis palustris
(Raf.) Chapm. ) Rep Bay.

Usually a smaller tree than the preceding. Rarely large
enough for saw timber, and often little more than a shrub. Dif-
fers otherwise chiefly in having the leaves rusty-pubescent below,
on the veins and petioles. These differences would seem unim-
portant, but for the fact that the ranges and habitats of the two
species are quite different.

Both species are occasionally cultivated for ornament, and the
leaves are sometimes dried and used for flavoring soup.

P. pubescens grows in wet woods and non-alluvial and es-
tuarine swamps, mostly in places where less than 5% of the area
was cultivated in cotton in 1880. It is less common in Alabama
than farther east, where the summers are wetter.

4. Along branches on the southeast slope of the Blue Ridge, Clay
County. (See Torreya 10:220-221. 1910.)

5. Along branches near Coosa River, Chilton County.

6A. About 2 miles south and 18 miles southeast of Tuscaloosa.

6B. Spring-head in gravelly hills near Lock 14, Tuscaloosa County.
Also in Autauga County.

10E. Dale County.

10W. Sumter County.

12. Geneva County.

13. Washington, Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties.

14. Common in lower part of Mobile delta.

15. Near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

SASSAFRAS, Nees & Ebermaier. SASSAFRAS.
S. variifolium (Sal.) Kuntze. (S. officinale, Nees)
(Figs. 48, 49)

This well-known plant is remarkably variable in size. In its
natural home in the forests it is a slender tree, seldom more than
a foot in diameter and forty feet tall. But when protected from
competition, either by having the surrounding trees cut away, or
by being planted by birds or man along a roadside or in a field, it
may become much larger. Specimens two or three feet in diameter
have been reported from several eastern states, and the largest one
known to the writer (shown in the accompanying illustrations) is
in Tuscaloosa. But the commonest form at the present time is a
shrub or small tree which forms small thickets in fields not re-
cently cultivated, or grows along fences at the edges of fields; and

182 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

48 AQ

Fies. 48, 49. Two views of what may be the largest sassafras tree in
Alabama, in eastern part of Tuscaloosa (12th St. near 10th Ave.), taken
from same point, in spring, about six years apart. March 21, 1913, and April
11, 1919. On the latter date the trunk was 34 inches in diameter, breast-high.
At the present time the tree is in a thickly settled neighborhood, and about
half its branches are dead. Nothing is known of its history previous to 1913,
but it probably did not grow up in a virgin forest, but more likely in the yard
of some farm-house.
in that form it is somewhat of a nuisance. ‘These sprouts or sap-
lings have some redeeming features, however, for they are often
cut for pea-vine supports, brooms, hoops, etc., and the roots are
dug for sassafras tea, a popular semi-medicinal beverage or spring
tonic in the rural districts. (I have even seen sassafras roots on
sale at grocery stores in Birmingham.) In some parts of the
country the natives distinguish two kinds of roots, “red” and
“white” sassafras, and regard the latter as poisonous; but no such
distinction is made by botanists, and if there is any difference it

is probably due to age, habitat, or some other unimportant factor.

The whole plant, like other members of the family, is aro-
matic, and the pith, the bark of the root, and the oil distilled from
it, are officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoiea. ‘The leaves are some-
times used for flavoring soup, like those of Persea. The wood is
light, soft and weak, but durable, and the Indians sometimes carved
canoes out of single logs of it. It is used to some extent for fence-
rails, posts, and telephone poles. Along a country road near Dade-

LAURACEHAE 183

ville in 1906 I saw a good many of the latter about 8 inches in
diameter and 20 feet tall (above the ground), which must have
been cut somewhere near by. Wailes, in his report on the geology
and agriculture of Mississippi (1854, p. 353), says that it was in
great demand in that state for shingles, and large trees had already
become scarce. It is occasionally cultivated for ornament, in re-
gions where it is not too common naturally.

The natural habitat of the sassafras seems to be on bluffs and
river-banks, but like several other species associated with it, it runs
wild in old fields and along roadsides, which are as well protected
from fire as its native haunts. (It is probably not as sensitive
to fire as some of our other trees, though.) It is widely distrib-
uted in those parts of the state where farming is carried on ex-
tensively, and more than 10% of the area was cultivated in cotton
in 1880. In regions 4 and 6B it seems to grow wild in the pine
forests, but only as a low shrub, perhaps because fires are too fre-
quent there to allow it to develop into a tree; and as it seldom if
ever blooms under such conditions, the seeds must be continually
brought by birds from other regions. Some of the largest known
native specimens are in regions 2B and 6A, in Tuscaloosa County.
Native specimens seem to be rare south of the black belt.

BENZOIN, Fabricius. SpicE-woop. SPIcE-BUSH.
Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees. (Lindera Benzoin, Blume)

An aromatic deciduous shrub, with small yellow flowers ap-
pearing in early spring before the leaves, and red berries in fall.
Sometimes cultivated for ornament. ‘The berries and bark are
medicinal, but not officinal. In Marengo County I have been told
that a decoction of the twigs is used for a beverage by the negroes.

Grows in rich or damp woods; not common in Alabama,
where it seems to prefer calcareous soils.

1B. Jackson and Marshall Counties.

2A. On Monte Sano, Madison County.

2B. Rich ravine near Tidewater (Lock 13), Tuscaloosa County.

6C or 7. Hale County (Mohr).

8. Hammock of Chickasawbogue Creek, Marengo County.

10W. Wilcox County (Mohr). South of Searcy, Butler County. Rich
woods northeast of Claiborne, Monroe County.

11. Near Salt Creek, Clarke County.

184 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Benzoin melissaefolium ( Walt.) Nees.

A perfectly distinct species, but rare and little known. Said
by Dr. Mohr to have been collected by Buckley near Allenton,
Wilcox County ; but apparently not seen in Alabama by any botan-
ist in the last 75 years.

SAXIFRAGACEAE. SaAxiIFRAGE FAMILy.

In the broader sense this includes about 75 genera and 1000
species, mostly herbs and shrubs, in the cooler parts of the world.
Several are ornamental.

PHILADELPHUS, Linnaeus. Syrtnca or Mock ORANGE.

Medium-sized deciduous shrubs, with handsome white flow-
ers, blooming mostly in May. ‘The limits of the species are rather
uncertain, and at least five species have been credited to Alabama,
but most of them look very much alike, especially when not in
bloom. Except for first species listed below, I have not been able
to distinguish them in my field work, and all the others will be
lumped together for the present.

They are often cultivated for ornament, and some of the cul-
tivated forms do not seem to be exactly matched by any known in
the wild state.

Philadelphus hirsutus, Nutt.

Grows on dry siliceous cliffs, mostly among the mountains.

1A. Along Cypress Creek near Florence (Mohr).
2A. Jackson County (Harbison) ; DeKalb County (Mohr).
4. Summit of Coldwater Mountain, Calhoun County.

Philadelphus inodorus, lL. (etc.)

Grows on bluffs and cliffs, well protected from fire.

1A. Colbert and Lauderdale Counties.

1B. Jackson County. Along Tennessee River near Plymouth Rock
Landing, Morgan County.

2A. Marshall County. (?).

2B. Rocky bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County. (Flowers
smaller and leaves rougher than usual.) Shale bluffs on Warrior River,
Tuscaloosa County.

3. Cherokee, Talladega and Bibb Counties.

5. Lee County (Underwood & Earle).

6A. Elmore County. (?)

7. Montgomery County. (7?)

10W. Wilcox County (Buckley).

11. Clarke County.

SAXIFRAGACEAE 185

HYDRANGEA, Linnaeus. THE HypRANGEAs.
Hydrangea arborescens, L.

A deciduous shrub, with crooked or drooping stems two or
three feet long, and flat-topped clusters of small white flowers, the
outer ones often enlarged and sterile like those of the garden hy-
drangeas. Blooms mostly in May.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament. The roots are said to
be somewhat astringent.

Grows in ravines and on bluffs well protected from fire,
mostly in the northern parts of the state.

1A. Lauderdale County (Mohr). Bluffs on south side of Mussel
Shoals in Colbert County.

1B. Rocky woods near Blount Springs.

2A. Pisgah gorge, Jackson County (Harbison). Slopes of Lookout
Mountain near Valley Head. DeKalb and Cullman Counties (Mohr). Near
Short Creek, Marshall County. Warnock Mountain, Blount County.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Blount and Talladega Counties.

4. Coldwater Mountain, Calhoun County. Clay County (Mohr).

5. Cleburne, Clay, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Franklin, Pickens, Hale and Elmore Counties.

6C. Autauga County.

7. Near Demopolis. Hatcher’s Bluff, Dallas County.

10E. Near Elba.

10W. Near Greenville and Claiborne.

Hydrangea cinerea, Small.

According to H. St. John (see bibliography) the plants de-
scribed under this name include forms of H. radiata Walt. and
two varieties of H. arborescens (oblonga and Deamti). But as
nearly all my field work in Alabama was done before that opinion
was published, these different forms are not separated in my
notes, and will have to be treated as one for the present. H. ar-
borescens cordata, treated separately with some hesitation by Dr.
Mohr, is regarded by Mr. St. John as indistinguishable from H.
arborescens. Generally speaking, this aggregate differs from typ-
ical H. arborescens in having the leaves larger, or tomentose be-
neath, or both. (The extreme with leaves white beneath, H. radi-
ata, 1s not certainly known in Alabama. )

These large-leaved plants have much the same habitat as H.
arborescens, but tend toward richer or shadier places.

1A. Banks of Tennessee River near Florence (Mohr).
1B. On Mountain limestone in Madison and Marshall Counties.

186 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

2A. Pisgah gorge, Jackson County (Harbison; reports both H. cinerea
and H. radiata). DeKalb County.

2B. Ravine a few miles from Squaw Shoals (Lock 17), Tuscaloosa
County.

4. Alpine Mountain, Talladega County.

5. Bluffs near Big Sandy Creek, Tallapoosa County.

Hydrangea quercifolia, Bartr. SEVEN-BARK
(Map 19, Figs. 50, 51)

A very distinct and handsome species, readily recognized by
its large oak-like leaves which are white-downy beneath, and its
large elongated flower-clusters; or in winter by its coarse twigs,
and loose bark, several layers of which are continually peeling off
(whence the name). Grows about five feet tall. Blooms in May
and June.

This is cultivated for ornament locally in and near its range,
but does not seem to be sold by nurserymen, although it is the
most showy American species of Hydrangea. It is more or less
medicinal, like the other species.

Grows mostly in ravines and on bluffs and cliffs, where it is
pretty well protected from fire. It is widely distributed over the
state (see map), and there is probably more of it in Alabama than

in all the rest of the world.

1A. Lauderdale and Colbert Counties.

1B. In Brown’s Valley, in Marshall and Blount Counties.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Frequent in most of the counties, especially Cullman.

2B. Abundant in most of the counties.

3. Jefferson, Talladega and Bibb Counties.

4. Rather common throughout.

5. Frequent, except perhaps in Chambers County.

6A. Franklin, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa County.

6C. Autauga County.

7. Hatcher’s Bluff, and ravines southwest of Pleasant Hill, Dallas
County.

8. Eastern part of Russell County.

10K. Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties; rather rare.

10W. Choctaw, Butler and Monroe Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington and Clarke Counties.

13. Escambia and Mobile Counties.

ITEA, Linnaeus. (Only one species).

Itea Virginica, L. (Apparently no common name).

A shrub about medium size, with few ascending or nodding
stems, deciduous leaves, and racemes of small white flowers in
May. Sold by some nurserymen for ornamental purposes.

SAXIFRAGACEAE 187

Fic. 50. Near view of Hydrangea quercifolia, with flower
clusters over a foot long, on edge of right-of-way of M. & O.
R. R. about two miles southeast of Lawley, Bibb County. June 11,
1924. (The plant may be a little more luxuriant in such a sit-
uation than it would have been in a virgin forest.)

188 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 51. Cultivated specimen of Hydrangea quercifolia, in Tusca-
loosa. June 11, 1923.

Grows in wet woods, swamps and sloughs; in nearly every

region, but nowhere abundant.

1A. Lauderdale County (Mohr). Limestone County.
2A. Cullman, Blount, DeKalb and Cherokee Counties.
2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.
3. Shelby County.
4. Clay County.
5. Cleburne and Randolph Counties.

6A. Pickens and Tuscaloosa Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Bibb and Autauga Counties. Grows about an inch and a half in
diameter and 15 feet tall on Autauga Creek near Booth.

7. Montgomery County (Mohr). Marengo County.

8. Marengo and Pike Counties.

10K. Pike County.

10W. Choctaw and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw and Conecuh Counties.

12. Houston County.

13 (?). Mobile County (Mohr).

14. Baldwin County.

DECUMARIA, Linnaeus.

Decumaria barbara, L. (Apparently no common name).

A woody vine, climbing high up into trees, or sometimes on
rocks, by means of rootlets which attach themselves to rough sur-
faces in the manner of the English ivy and our poison ivy. Leaves

SAXIFRAGACEAE 189

Ys

aK

\

we
Lp-»f

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

HYDRANGEA QUERCIFOLIA

Map 19. Approximate distribution of Hydrangea quercifolia.

190 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

opposite, simple, smooth, entire, deciduous. Flowers small, white,
in loose clusters, in May.

It seems strange that this common and handsome vine, which
is sold by some nurserymen for ornamental purposes (though I
have never seen it in cultivation), should have no common name.
If it grew in the thickly-settled northeastern states, where nature-
lovers and literary people are numerous, it would probably have
been given a name and even written about by poets long ago.

Grows in wet woods and swamps, in nearly all parts of the

state.

1A (?). Lauderdale County (Mohr).

2A. Winston, Cullman and Blount Counties.

2B. Fayette, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Bibb County.

4. Calhoun and Clay Counties.

5. Cleburne, Randolph and Chilton Counties.

6A. Common throughout.

6B. Bibb and Autauga Counties.

6C. Greene and Perry Counties.

7. Dallas County, especially in ravines of the plateau in the southern
part of the county. Montgomery County (Mohr).

10E. Crenshaw, Dale and Covington Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw and Clarke Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke, Monroe and Conecuh Counties.

12. Houston County.

13. Mobile (Mohr) and Baldwin Counties.

GROSSULARIACEAE. GooskEBEerry FAMILY.

Includes one or two genera and about 130 species, mostly
shrubs of the north temperate zone. Some have edible fruit and
some are ornamental.

RIBES, Linnaeus. THE CurrRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

Our two species belong to the gooseberry tribe (Grossularia),
which is often treated as a separate genus, and perhaps justly so.

Ribes curvatum, Small.

A small prickly deciduous shrub. Recommended by nursery-
men as excellent for rock gardens. The fruit may be edible, but
it is too rare to be of any importance.

Grows on rocky slopes and ridges, protected from fire, in
mountainous regions.

2A. Along Short and Drum Creeks near Albertville, Marshall County.
4. On the highest ridges. Cedar and Cheaha Mountains.

GROSSULARIACEAE 191

Ribes Cynosbati, L.

Much like the preceding in properties and habitat.

Known only from the plateau region (2A), where Mr. Har-
bison found a few specimens in Marshall County, and more near
Bryant's, Jackson County.*

HAMAMELIDACEAE. WrrcH-HAzEL FAMILY.

About 20 genera and 50 species, trees and shrubs, mostly in
North America, Asia and Africa. A few are ornamental or
medicinal, and one is a timber tree.

HAMAMELIS, Linnaeus.

Hamamelis Virginiana, L. WITCH-HAZEL.

A large shrub, with pale yellowish faintly scented flowers ap-
pearing mostly after the leaves fall, from October to January. In
mild winters some of them last until the alder (our earliest-
flowering native woody plant) blooms in spring.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament. The leaves, bark and
twigs are officinal, and enter into the well-known witch-hazel ex-
tract, and other liniments and salves. The branches are said to
have been formerly used for “divining rods’’, to locate water.

Prof. Sargent a few years agoy asserted that the witch-hazel
of the coastal plain should be referred to H. macrophylla Pursh,
restricting the typical H. Virginiana to a more northerly range. But
the differences must be small, or more people would have noticed
them; and as most of my field work was done before this distinc-
tion was suggested, I cannot separate the two forms in my notes.
Even if the extremes are different enough, they must intergrade
or overlap geographically, for there is no noticeable gap between
them in Alabama.

The witch-hazel grows in dry woods and hammocks, reason-
ably exempt from fire, in nearly all parts of the state. It is com-
mon in regions 2A and 5, and rare or unknown in 1A, 9 and 14.

*See pages 153 and 156 of his paper cited in the bibliography.
+Jour. Arnold Arboretum 1 :246, “April” [May] 1920.

192 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

FOTHERGILLA, Murray. (No common name).

Fothergilla Gardeni, Murr. (F. Carolina (L.) Britton).

A small shrub, usually about knee-high, with leaves much like
and pods something like those of Hamamelis, but with white flow-
ers in dense clusters in spring. Has no known use, except that it
is sometimes cultivated, more as a rarity or curiosity than any-
thing else.

Grows mostly in sandy bogs; rather rare.

1A. Lauderdale County (M. C. Wilson).

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). Marshall County (C. L. Boynton,
Harbison).

6C (?). Prattville (Mohr).

13. Sandy bog south of Andalusia.

F. major Lodd., a somewhat larger species, is credited to the moun-
tains of Alabama by Dr. Small, but without definite locality. The Fother-
gilla along Eight-mile Creek in Cullman County is referred by W. Wolf to
this species.

LIQUIDAMBAR, Linnzeus. (Only one species in the United States.)

Liquidambar Styraciflua, L,.
SWEET Gum. (ReEp Gum of the lumber trade.)

A well-known tree, one of the commonest in the state, next
to some of the pines and oaks. Attains a diameter of about four
feet, particularly in the Sipsey River bottoms near Fayette, but
most specimens at the present time are less than two feet. Blooms
in March and April.

The sweet gum is so common that it is inevitable that it
should have many uses. It is cultivated in parks and along streets
(mostly in the northern and middle states, where it is rarer and
more appreciated than in the South), and is especially showy in
the fall, when its leaves turn purplish. The curious fruits (sweet-
gum balls) and corky-winged twigs are sometimes used for dec-
orations and fancy articles. The gum that exudes from the inner
bark when it is wounded is used to some extent in the treatment
of catarrh and frost-bite, and in the manufacture of chewing-gum,
but it is not officinal.

One might suppose that such a common tree would be used
largely for fuel; but it does not seem to be specially sought for
that purpose. It was used for steamboat fuel in Mississippi in the
middle of the last century, though, according to Wailes.

HAMAMELIDACEAE 193

The wood is difficult to season and much inclined to warp,
and for that reason was not used much for lumber up to half a
century ago. But the depletion of other hardwoods has led manu-
facturers to fall back on this and other formerly despised species
more and more, and it has been found that with proper treatment
it is well adapted for furniture, cabinet-making, interior finish,
boxes, slack cooperage, and various other purposes. In fact it
now largely takes the place of black walnut, which it somewhat
resembles. At the present time it is used more than any other
wood for boxes made by the veneer process, i. e., of thin sheets
stiffened at the edgs by thicker strips of some other wood, which
prevent warping and at the same time give strength to the whole
box. Another use which has developed in the last fifteen years
or so is for the wooden cores of the spools on which photographic
films are wound; for in such smali pieces the tendency to warp is
not perceptible.

There are some interesting notes on this species in Wailes’s
report on the geology of Mississippi (1854), and three pages are
devoted to it in Miscellaneous Special Report No. 3 of the U. 5S.
Department of Agriculture, on the resources of Mississippi, pub-
lished in 1883. See also the bulletins by Chittenden and Von
Schrenk cited in the bibliography.

The sweet gum grows in all sorts of soils except the poorest
and driest, in every region in Alabama and doubtless in every
county. It makes about 4% of the present stand of timber in the
state, rising to over 5% in regions 6C, 7, 9 and 14, and falling be-
low 2% apparently only in 4 (where it is confined to the lower
slopes of the mountains), 12 and 13. In addition to its native
haunts in the forests and swamps, it is rather common as a sort
of weed in old fields, low pastures, and along roadsides. In damp
sandy soils, especially in the long-leaf pine regions, it often has
the dimensions of a large shrub, with no large trees of it in sight,
but it does not seem to bloom in that stage, and just how it per-
petuates itself there is not obvious.

194 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

ROSACEAE. Ross Famity.

This is a large family in temperate regions, with about 65
genera and 1,000 species, and includes a great many ornamental
and useful plants, especially fruits of many kinds. Most 19th
century botanists included in it the apples and plums and their
relatives ; but although those are very similar in floral characters
to the typical Rosaceae, they differ so much in fruit that it seems
best to put them in separate families. All our representatives of
the rose family proper are herbs and shrubs, while those of the
apple and plum families are mostly trees.

OPULASTER, Medicus. (Neillia, Don; Physocarpus, Kaf.)
( NINE-BARK. )

Medium-sized deciduous shrubs, with white flowers in clus-
ters near the ends of the branches, in spring. Occasionally culti-
vated for ornament.

The Alabama specimens have been variously referred to
Opulaster opulifolius (1,.) Kuntze, O. Alabamensis and O. inter-
medius Rydb., and Physocarpus stellatus (Rydb.) Rehder; but
they are probably all much alike, and they are also rare. ‘Treating
the whole aggregate as one species, its known distribution in Ala-
bama is as follows:

1A. Rocky banks of Cypress Creek near Florence (M. C. Wilson).

3. Valleys near Sanford Springs, Cherokee County. (H. E. Wheeler,
June, 1926.)

5. Wright's Mill, Lee County (F. S. Earle).

SPIRAEA, Linnaeus. (Bripar WreatH, MEApow SweEEt, etc.)
Spiraea corymbosa, Raf.

A small deciduous shrub, with white flowers in late spring.
Found on the banks of Cypress Creek near Florence by Prof.

Wilson. é :
NEVIUSIA, Gray. (Only one species).

Neviusia Alabamensis, Gray. (Too rare to have a common
name.)
(Figs. 52, 53)
A deciduous shrub with many slender recurving stems and
white flowers with many stamens and no petals, in March. Takes

ROSACEAE 195

Fic. 52. Clump of Neviusia in bloom, on south side of Smith Hall, on
University campus. Walter B. Jones, March 27, 1926. (In its native haunts
this is usually in such shady places, or so mixed with other shrubbery, that
it is difficult to get a satisfactory picture of it.)

readily to cultivation, and is said to be hardy as far north as
Massachusetts.

This unique plant, with its nearest relatives Asiatic, was dis-
covered near Tuscaloosa by Drs. R. D. Nevius and W. S. Wyman
in the spring of 1857. (Both of these gentlemen were living half
a century later.) It is not known to grow wild outside of Ala-
baimd,,except that J: C. I. Uphot (Am. Jour:. Bot.-9:7.. 1922
claims to have found a single specimen on a southeast-facing slope
of sandy loam in Butler County, Missouri.

References :—Harper 3, 19, Mohr 6, Pollard.

Grows on bluffs and slopes of limestone and shale, usually in
shady places.

1B. Mountain slopes east of New Market, Madison County. (See
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:532. 1906.) Base of Sand Mountain, Jackson
County (Harbison). Limestone ridge between Somerville and Falkville,
Morgan County.

2B. Shale cliffs on both sides of the Warrior River within about ten
miles of Tuscaloosa. (See Plant World 3:136. 1900; 9:105. 1906.)

196 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 53. Near view of flowers of Neviusia, same time as preceding
picture.

ROSACEAE 197
RUBUS, L. ‘THE BLACKBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, ETC.

Shrubs or trailing vines, mostly thorny, with compound leaves
and usually edible fruits. A puzzling genus, more so in the north-
ern states and in Europe than with us. Many alleged new species
have been described in recent years, and there is no telling how
many may eventually be credited to Alabama. At present about
half a dozen is all that can be distinguished in this state by one
who has not made a special study of them.

The fruits of some are of considerable commercial importance,
and most of the species possess medicinal properties, especially in
the bark of the root. Most of them are more frequent as weeds
in old fields and along roadsides, where they are pretty well pro-
tected from fire, than in any natural habitats.

Rubus floridus, Tratt. (R. nigrobaccus, Bailey?) BLACKBERRY.

To this species may be referred provisionally the common
blackberries of moderately rich soil, pastures and thickets, par-
ticularly in the upper half of the state. They also grow often in
damp places, such as clearings in swamps. The time of blooming
varies with the latitude, but is usually March to May. ‘These
blackberries are common and widely distributed outside of the re-
gions where long-leaf pine predominates.

Rubus cuneifolius, Pursh. BLACKBERRY. (BRIER-BERRY.)

Differs from our other species in having smaller and thicker
leaflets covered beneath with short dense whitish down. Its nat-
ural habitat is not certainly known, but it is common on sandy
roadsides and in sandy old fields, mostly in the coastal plain.

Reported by Dr. Mohr from Lauderdale and Cullman Coun-
ties. Occurs near ‘Tuscaloosa, but is much more common south of
the black belt. It is almost the only bush blackberry in regions 8,
HOE, 12. and-13,

Rubus trivialis, Mx. DEWBERRY.

Our common dewberries may represent more than one species,
but they are all trailing vines, with leaves evergreen or nearly so,
flowers and fruit about a month earlier than the blackberries, and

198 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

fruit with fewer and larger drupelets, a little juicier and otherwise
better than that of most of the blackberries.

Where this grew a few centuries ago is a mystery, for it seems
to be confined now to habitats considerably altered by civilization,
such as old fields and roadsides. It is widely distributed over the
state, apparently most common in the central portions, and com-
paratively rare in the long-leaf pine regions, though it extends to
the shores of Mobile Bay.

Rubus hispidus, L. (Swamp DEWBERRY. )

A small evergreen vine, with fruit scarce and practically
tasteless.

Native in damp woods. Reported from Lookout Mountain
and Lee County by Dr. Mohr; but according to Prof. Farle the
latter record is an error.

Rubus occidentalis, L.
BiLacK-CAP RASPBERRY. ‘[HIMBLE-BERRY.

A neat shrub with few prickles; the stems and under surfaces
of the leaves waxy. Blooms in April, fruit ripe in June.
Grows in rocky woods; rare in Alabama but common farther
north.
) 1B. 7On limestone near Scottsboro, Jackson County. Warnock Moun-
tain, Blount County.
1C. On sandstone on Smithers Mountain, Madison County.

2A. On Monte Sano and Lookout Mountain, at elevations above 1,500
feet (Mohr).

Rubus odoratus, L,., the flowing raspberry, a handsome northern species
with simple leaves, large pink-purple flowers, and worthless fruit, is cred-
ited to Alabama by Small, but without definite locality and probably with-
out sufficient evidence.

ROSA, Linnaeus. THE Roses.

Another puzzling genus, especially in the North and in Eu-
rope, where it is represented by innumerable cultivated forms,
mostly double-flowered, and a few single-flowered species that
are native or have escaped from cultivation. Only about three
native species are known in Alabama, and about the same number
of introduced ones.

ROSACEAE 199

Rosa setigera, Mx.

A distinct species, with only three leaflets.

Grows mostly in calcareous soils. Reported by Dr. Mohr
from Falkville, Lookout Mountain (locality not specified), Hale
County (presumably in the black belt), and Uniontown ( Perry
Co.). I have seen it only on chalky roadsides in Greene County,
but it is there associated with several undoubtedly native species,
and it probably occurs, or did occur, in some natural habitat
near by.

Rosa palustris, Marsh. (Formerly referred to R. Carolina, L.)

Differs from most other wild roses in growing in wet places.
Known in Alabama only from a swamp west of Triana, Mad-
ison County (region 1B), where I saw it on July 20, 1922.

Rosa humilis, Marsh. (. Carolina, L.?)

A low shrub, about knee-high, with large pink flowers, in
late spring. Grows in dry woods. Widely distributed, but no-
where common. (More than one species may be included. )

1B. Madison and Morgan Counties. Limestone slopes of Warnock
Mountain, Blount County.

1C. Lawrence County.

2A. Cullman County (W. Wolf).

2B (?). Tuscaloosa County (E. A. Smith).

3. St. Clair County (Mohr).

4. Alpine Mountain, Talladega County (Mohr). Clay County.

6C (?). Hale County (Sereno Watson, according to Mohr).

7 (?). Dallas County (Mohr).

10W (?). Wilcox County (Buckley).
Rosa laevigata, Mx. (RR. Sinica, Ait.; R. Cherokeensis, Don.)

CHEROKEE Rose.

A high-climbing vine-like shrub with evergreen leaves and
large pure white flowers in March and April. Supposed to be
native of China and Japan, but it was found in this country by
some of the earliest explorers, and may have been introduced in
some way before the time of Columbus. (See Mohr’s Plant Life,
pp. 54, 544.) It is certainly not native in Alabama, anyway, for
it is strictly confined to unnatural habitats, especially roadsides.
It is occasionally cultivated for ornament, and has been recom-
mended for the “state flower’ in this and one or two adjoining
states.

200 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

6A. Near Tuscaloosa; not common.

6C. Perry, Autauga and Montgomery Counties. Probably commoner
in the black belt and southward, but I have made no special note of it
there, except near Richmond in Dallas County. (Mohr says “Throughout
the coast plain” [his “coast plain” being not the whole coastal plain, but
a small area around Mobile Bay], but gives no specific locality.)

Rosa bracteata, Wendl. (Macartney Rose.)

Resembles the preceding, and is often confused with it by
persons who are not familiar with both. But it is more bushy, has
more numerous and shorter leaflets, and a different calyx, and
blooms about two months later. Supposed to be native of Asia.

Probably originally cultivated for ornament, but now mostly
a weed, in old fields, pastures, along roadsides, etc.

1B. Near Cherokee, Colbert County. (Could the place perhaps have
been named after the rose?)

3. Shelby County; especially common around Calera. Also Talladega
County.

6A. Common near Tuscaloosa.

6C. Perry County.

7. Dallas, Lowndes and Montgomery Counties.

8 (7). Abundant near Carlowville, Dallas County.

13. Mobile County (Mohr).

Three other introduced roses are listed in Mohr’s Plant Life, from
one county each.

POMACEAE (or MALACEAE). Appr Famity.

Includes about 20 genera and 600 species, trees and shrubs,
mostly in the north temperate zone. Many have edible fruit (e.g.,
apple, pear, quince), and some are ornamental.

MALUS, Jussieu (Pyrus, L., in part). Tur Appiis, ete.

Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Mx. (Pyrus angustifolia, Ait.)
CRAB-APPLE.

A small tree, usually less than a foot in diameter, with numer-
ous spreading branches. Flowers pink and fragrant, in March
and April; fruit ripe in fall. A somewhat variable species, and
some of the Alabama crab-apples might be referred by splitters to
other species, but the differences are not very marked, and they
will be all treated as one for the present.

Sometimes cultivated, chiefly on account of the flowers, which
besides gratifying the senses of sight and smell, are said to be a

POMACEAE 201

source of honey. The fruit is hard and sour, but is often eaten
raw by the fair sex, and it makes pretty good preserves and jelly.
On Lookout Mountain I have been told that the tree can be used
as a stock for grafting almost any sort of apples. The wood is
hard, and might have some uses if there was enough of it.

Grows in dry or slightly damp woods, usually in somewhat
clayey soil and in level ground. Nowhere abundant; and not con-
spicuous when not in bloom.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Madison and Cullman Counties (Mohr). Lookout Mountain, De-
Kalb County.

2B. North of Vance, Tuscaloosa County.

3. DeKalb, Etowah, St. Clair, Jefferson, Shelby, and doubtless in all
the other counties.

Ha Coosa’ County.

6A. Elmore County.

6C. Greene, Autauga and Montgomery Counties.

7. Dailas (Mohr, Cocks) and Montgomery Counties.

8. Pike County.

10W. Butler County.

13. Mobile County (Mohr).

ARONIA, Medicus. (CHOKE-BERRY ).
Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Pers. (Pyrus arbutifolia, L. f.)

A small thornless deciduous shrub with bright red berries re-
sembling small haws, but not fit to eat. Blooms in March. (‘There
are one or two related species farther north, and there may possi-
bly be more than one in Alabama.) Said to be occasionally culti-
vated for ornament.

Crows in sandy bogs and wet woods, in those parts of the
state where less than 5% of the area was cultivated in cotton in
1880.

2A. Cullman, Marshall and DeKalb Counties.
i Along Mill Creek near Democrat, Jefferson County. (15 feet

tall).

4. Cheaha Mountain (Mohr).

5. Wet woods southeast of Heflin, Cleburne County (10 feet tall).

6A. Marion and Bibb Counties.

6B. Chilton and Autauga Counties.

8. Pike County.

10E. Dale and Coffee Counties.

10W. Sumter County.

13. Covington and Geneva Counties.

One of the black-fruited species should occur in Alabama, but they
are not easy to distinguish when not in fruit, and I have no record of
them

202 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

AMELANCHIER, Medicus. S&rRvVICE-BERRY.
(JUNE-BERRY. SHAD-BUSH.)

‘Two or more species of this genus have been credited to Ala-
bama, but the distinctions between them are obscure, and it is al-
most impossible to distinguish them when they are not in bloom
or in fruit; so they will be treated as one for the present.

Amelanchier Canadensis (L.) Medic. (A. Botryapium (L. f.)

Der)

A shrub or small leaning tree, with wood hard and heavy, but
usually of too small dimensions to be of any value. It has racemes
of white flowers in early spring, and is occasionally cultivated for
ornament. The fruit is edible, but produced so sparingly in the
southeastern states that few people ever taste it.

Grows mostly on bluffs and river-banks, and probably needs
protection from fire.

1A. Along Cypress Creek near Florence.

1B. Blount County.

2A. Cullman, Marshall and DeKalb Counties.

2B. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Cherokee and St. Clair Counties.

(5. Doubtless occurs, but I never happened to notice it there. A speci-
men from Auburn is the type of A. Alabamensis, Britton.)

6A. Marion and Chilton Counties.

6C. House Bluff, Autauga County.

7. Dallas (Cocks) and Montgomery Counties.
10F. Pike County.
13 (?). Mobile County (Mohr).

CRATAEGUS, Linnaeus. THE (RED) Haws.
(HawrnHorns of English literature. )

Small trees, usually crooked and much branched, or shrubs;
more or less thorny; with deciduous leaves, white flowers, and
small, usually red, fruits, with large hard seeds (or rather nutlets).
They have hard wood, but practically none of them are large
enough for saw timber, and most of the species are rather scarce
besides; so that the taxonomic difficulties mentioned below are
of little concern to foresters and wood users. Some of the species
are cultivated for ornament, and probably all of them could be.
The fruit of most of them is about the size of a common grape,
but rather dry and hardly worth eating, on account of the large

hard seeds. A few species, however, have juicy fruit that makes
excellent jelly.

POMACEAE 203

The species of Crataegus occur in a considerable variety of
habitats, but seem to prefer rather thin soils, and are most numer-
ous in limestone regions. ‘They are probably sensitive to fire, for
most of them grow in places pretty well protected from fire. Many
if not most of them are found only in clearings, pastures, old
fields, along roadsides, ete., and the significance of this will be
discussed farther on.

The treatment of this genus in botanical literature has under-
gone a remarkable development in the last few decades. Chap-
man’s Flora of the Southern United States (first edition, 1860,
second edition, 1883) enumerates only 11 species, and the sixth
edition of Gray’s Manual of Botany for the northeastern states
(edited by Watson & Coulter, 1890) only 10 native species, 2 in-
troduced species, and 3 varieties. In Sargent’s ponderous Silva
of North America (Vol. 4, 1892) it is stated that there are about
forty species of Crataegus known, about equally divided between
the Old World and the New. Fourteen species and four varieties
were described from the United States, and there were said to be
at least three others in Mexico. Most of the United States species
listed at that time were described in the 18th century, and only
one as late as 1880.

What might be called the Crataegus boom of the end of the
19th century may be said to have had its beginning in the descrip-
tion of two new species from Northwest Georgia by Dr. A. W.
Chapman (then in his 83rd year) in the supplement to the rare
1892 edition of his southern Flora. One from the Rocky Moun-
tains was described by Greene in 1896, and one from the north-
eastern states by Britton in 1897. Shortly after that C. D. Beadle
of the Biltmore Herbarium began describing supposed new species
of this genus collected by himself and assistants in various parts
of the South, and Prof. Sargent did likewise with material from
other parts of the country. Britton and Brown’s Illustrated Flora
of the northeastern states and Canada (Vol. 2, 1897) lists only 15
species (trees and shrubs), but signs of the incoming tidal wave
(so to speak) were beginning to appear, and the first edition of
Sudworth’s Check List of trees of the United States, in the fol-
lowing year, enumerates about 25 (trees only).

In 1902 there appeared a supplementary volume (13) of Sar-
gent’s Silva, containing among other things descriptions of about

204 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

75 species of Crataegus not recognized ten years earlier, when the
4th volume of the same work was published, and a key to all the
arborescent species then known in the United States, 84 in num-
ber, with the observation that there were also a few shrubby ones.
Just about half the added species were described by Prof. Sargent
himself, in 1901 and 1902, and more than a third of the remainder
by Mr. Beadle in 1899 to 1901. Many more were added by Beadle
in 1902, evidently too late for inclusion in that volume of Sargent’s
Silva.

Small’s Flora of the Southeastern United States (1903) con-
tains 185 supposed species of Crataegus (trees and shrubs), about
three-fourths of them first described by Mr. Beadle, who revised
the whole genus for that work. They are divided into 33 named
groups, or tribes, most of which probably correspond approx-
imately with species as understood a decade earlier. ‘This seems
to have been about the culmination of the Crataegus boom, and
there are no more species in the second edition of Small’s Flora,
ten years later.

The tide seems to have begun to recede about that time, for
the first edition of Sargent’s Manual of Trees (1905) recognizes
only 132 arborescent species of Crataegus in the whole United
States and Canada. (Three of these grow in the Rocky Moun-
tains and westward, and the rest from Texas eastward.) In the
seventh edition of Gray’s Manual (edited by Robinson & Fernald,
1908), the genus was revised by W. W. Eggleston, and limited to
65 species and several varieties (25 major varieties and about the
same number of minor varieties, forms and hybrids), in 18 tribes,
in the northeastern states and Canada. (Just how many of these
should be classed as trees, and how many shrubs, is not apparent
from the descriptions). Britton and Shafer, in their book on North
American trees (1908), described only 51 arborescent species of
Crataegus for the whole country. The second edition of Britton
& Brown’s Illustrated Flora (Vol. 2, 1913) lists 73 species for
the northeastern states and Canada.

The last edition of A. A. Heller’s Catalogue of Plants of
North America north of Mexico (1909-1914) lists 957 names in
Crataegus. ‘This represents practically the sum of the activities of
Beadle, Sargent and their predecessors, making little or no allow-
ance for duplications.

POMACEAE 205

Although very little has been done in the way of describing
new species of Crataegus from the southeastern states since the
cessation of Mr. Beadle’s activities in 1902, Prof. Sargent con-
tinued to work on material from farther north, and the second
edition of his Manual (1922) includes 153 species, in 22 tribes.
The second edition of Sudworth’s Check List (1927) enumerates
nearly 200 supposedly arborescent forms (186 species and 12
varieties) of Cratacgus, in 22 tribes. Of these forms one is es-
caped from cultivation, one is a horticultural variety, and one is
supposed to be a natural hybrid. About 123 of them were first
described by Sargent, and 36 by Beadle.

Seven of the forms listed by Sudworth are known only from
Canada (though his work was intended to cover the United States
only ), 75 others are confined to the region of the northern manuals
(Virginia to Kansas, and northward to the Arctic circle), 25 are
known both north and south of latitude 36°30', 89 are confined
to the southeastern states, from North Carolina to Texas (includ-
ing one or two extending into Mexico), and 3 are only in the
Rocky Mountains or farther west. Only about 20 of these species
and varieties seem to be recorded from both east and west of the
Mississippi River, and about 60 (including the 3 far western ones )
from west of the river only, leaving about 118 which are only east
of the river. Just about half the total number are known from
only one state, and many of these perhaps only from a single sta-
tion or even a single individual.

E. J. Palmer in 1925 (Jour. Arnold Arboretum 6 :5-128)
published a “Synopsis of North American Crataegi”, including
about 1,155 species, varieties, forms and hybrids, and 231 syno-
nyms, without indicating which are trees and which are shrubs,
and without undertaking the stupendous task of examining each
alleged species critically to make sure that all were valid. Of the
total number given specific rank, 607 were described by Sargent,
138 by Beadle, 164 by Ashe, and not more than ten by any other
author. About nine-tenths of them are credited to only one state
each.

The known representation of this genus in Alabama has of
course increased proportionately to the developments just out-
lined. Of the 14 species and 4 varieties treated in Sargent’s Silva

206 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

in 1892, nine species and one variety are assigned ranges extending
to or through Alabama. There are probably as many in this state
as in any other, and a large proportion of those discovered by the
Biltmore botanists a generation ago came from Alabama.

Dr. Mohr spent the last two years of his life (1899-1901) in
and around Asheville, N. C., where he was in frequent consulta-
tion with Mr. Beadle and his associates ( Biltmore being a suburb
of Asheville) ; and the treatment of Crataegus in his Plant Life of
Alabama therefore represents the latest available information
about that genus in this state at the time the book went to press
(about 1900). That work lists 20 species, of which three are
designated as shrubs only, while most of the others range in size
from shrubs to trees. None of them are confined to Alabama. As
to their distribution within the state, 9 are pretty widely distributed,
5 are chiefly northeastern, + northern but not specially northeast-
ern, and 2 southern.

During Dr. Mohr’s residence in Asheville Mr. Beadle pub-
lished three papers on Crataegus (Beadle 1-3 in bibliography), in
which 38 new species were proposed, most of them from Alabama,
but the second and third came out too late to be utilized by Dr.
Mohr. At that time the Biltmore collectors were actively exploring
the southern states, and some of the results of their activities, as
far as Crataegus is concerned, appeared in another paper by Mr.
Beadle, in 1902 (Beadle 5 in bibliography), in which were pro-
posed 31 new species from Alabama, and in his revision of the
genus for Small’s Flora (1903).

In the work just named 63 species of Crataegus (just about
one-third of the total from North Carolina to Texas) are credited
to Alabama. Eleven of them are called trees only, 39 trees or
shrubs, and 13 shrubs only; but of course there are all gradations
between trees and shrubs, and no two persons might agree on this
classification. ‘Thirty-three of the species are supposed to be con-
fined to Alabama, while 30 are reported from one or more other
states. The shrubs appear to be more local in distribution than
the trees, for nearly two-thirds of them, as compared with less
than half of the trees, are reported from Alabama only.

The records of their distribution within the state depend largely
on the work of the Biltmore botanists (25 to 30 years ago), which

POMACEAE 207

seems to have been largely concentrated in the northeastern quar-
ter of the state; and the results might be different if every county
was explored by Crataegus specialists; but the following figures
are at least suggestive. Twelve species are pretty widely distrib-
uted in the state, 22 are chiefly northeastern, 4 northern, 11 cen-
tral, 7 southeastern, 5 southwestern, and 2 southern.

In the second editions of Sargent’s Manual (1922) and Sud-
worth’s Check List (1927) only about 25 species of Crataegus are
assigned to Alabama, 6 of which are supposed to be confined to
the state. The difference between these figures and Small’s €3
is due partly to the omission of the shrubby species, but mostly to
a more conservative view of what constitutes a species. Nine of
the 25 are pretty widely distributed in the state, 5 are northeastern,
4 northern, 4 central, and 3 southern.

If we assume that the arrangement of species by Beadle in
Small’s Flora is a fair indication of relationship, there is a marked
tendency for related forms to inhabit the same neighborhoods (in
Alabama and elsewhere). ‘Taking the tribes in the order of the
book, it appears that the Alabama species of the Tomentosae, Cor-
datae, Aestivales and Virides are widely distributed within and
without the state, the Sargentianae are mostly northeastern, the
Pulcherrimae mostly southwestern, the Euflavae mostly northeast-
ern, the Visendae, Integrae, Dentatae, Attritae, Anisophyllae and
Recurvae mostly southeastern, and so on. Of course further ex-
ploration and study might necessitate some modification of these
statements, but the tendencies shown are worth bearing in mind.
It happens that the first four tribes here named consist largely
of long known and easily recognized species ; but it is possible that
the splitting process simply has not been carried as far in those
groups as in the others, and at some future time they too may
be divided into many ill-defined “species” of limited range. On
the other hand a conservative person might claim that the tribes
are the real species, and the alleged species in them nothing but
varieties, caused by slight differences in habitat; in which case
there would be nothing surprising about similar forms occurring
in the same regions.

The enormous multiplication of Crataegus species calls for
some comment. Very likely those who first described them be-

208 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

lieved they were perfectly good species, with well-defined tax-
onomic and geographical limits; and it is possible that many of
them are; but the reduction in number of recognized species after
1903 seems to indicate that the splitting process had been carried
too far. But even in the latest treatments of the genus, which are
conservative in comparison with those of 25 years ago, the named
forms can hardly be regarded as species in the same sense as most
of our pines and oaks, for example. They are probably more
nearly analogous to the innumerable horticultural varieties of roses,
sweet peas, chrysanthemums, etc. The distinctions between them
are often very finely drawn, depending on such trivial characters
as the number of stamens, color of anthers, and slight differences
in the shape or color of the fruit. (There is possibly no person
living who could name correctly even half of the 153 Crataegus
figures in Sargent’s Manual if they were removed from the text.)
And even if these rather obscure characters were invariable it
seems impossible for one who does not devote most of his time to
this one genus to remember enough of them to identify all the
supposed species without a book; and furthermore, it is necessary
to see both flowers and fruit to be sure of the identity of many
of the species, and that means visiting the same tree at least twice
at intervals of a few months or longer, and makes it impossible
to list the species seen on a reconnaissance trip, as can be done with
nearly all other trees.

It is quite likely that many of the supposed species of Cratae-
gus, especially those known from only one individual, are hybrids ;
but that cannot be proved without breeding experiments, which
would take several years for each species. Another possibility is
that they have originated by mutation or otherwise in the last
hundred years or so, since a large part of the country was cleared
up. For a great many of them, as indicated a few pages back, are
known only from old fields, pastures, roadsides, ete., which could
hardly have existed before the white man came.*

It happens that the writer has never succeeded in identifying
any of the Crataegus forms described in the last 35 years, having

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 35:354-355, 357. 1908. This question is
also discussed or touched upon by Sargent in Jour. Bot. (London) 45:290.
Aug. 1907; H. B. Brown in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37 :251-260, 1910, and
L. M. Standish in Jour. Heredity, June 1916.

POMACEAE 209

been occupied most of the time with other researches that seemed
easier or more important. Only the more easily recognized species
therefore are listed below; but a reader who 1s sufficiently inter-
ested can get information about others from the works of Mohr,
Small and Sargent, already mentioned.

The easily recognized species are about as follows:

Crataegus viridis, L. (C. arborescens, Ell.?)

An upright thorny tree, sometimes a foot in diameter and 40
feet tall, with fluted trunk and smoothish scaly bark. Probably
our largest haw tree. Blooms in March and April. Fruit small
and scarcely edible. According to Prof. Sargent the wood is
heavy, hard, compact, and takes a fine polish; but I find no record
of its ever having been utilized in Alabama.

Grows in damp flatwoods and alluvial bottoms, mostly in the
coastal plain.

1B. Madison, Limestone and Morgan Counties.

3. Jefferson, Shelby and Talladega Counties.
6A. Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6C. Montgomery County.

7. Hale (Mohr), Sumter, Dallas, Montgomery and Bullock Counties.
8. Pike County.

9. Sumter County.

10W. Wilcox County (Buckley).

11 (?). Clarke County (Mohr).

13. Conecuh River swamp southeast of Brewton.
14. Occasional in upper part of the delta.

Crataegus spathulata, Mx. (Sucar) Haw.

A small tree with crooked and fluted trunk, usually branching
low down, and smooth bark, cinnamon-red in patches where freshly
exposed by the scaling off of the thin light brown outer layers.
(In this respect it resembles the bark of the cultivated crepe myr-
tle, and more remotely that of the sycamore.) Flowers small and
numerous, in April and May. Fruit abundant and showy, but too
small to eat.

This haw is sometimes cultivated for ornament, but it has no
other use as far as known, except perhaps as food for birds.

Grows mostly in dry woods, preferring clayey soil, which may
be flat and “poorly drained”, as in the case of the crab-apple. Not
abundant in Alabama.

210 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

1B. Morgan (Mohr) and Franklin Counties.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Cullman (Mohr) and DeKalb Counties.

2B. Walker, Fayette, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Seen in most of the counties, and probably occurs in all.

5. Elmore County. Lee County (Mohr). Very likely in all the other
counties too.

6A. Greene, ‘Tuscaloosa and Elmore Counties.

6C. Hale, Autauga (Mohr) and Macon Counties.

Ife Greene, Hale, Dallas and Montgomery Counties.

10W. West of Myrtlewood, Marengo County, and near Allenton, Ww il-
cox County.

Crataegus apiifolia (Marsh.) Mx. (C. Marshallii Eggleston.)
(Pars_tEy Haw)

A tall shrub, tree-like in form, but with trunk seldom more
than three inches in diameter. Occasionally cultivated for orna-
ment.

Grows mostly in the coastal plain, in shaded bottoms and on
river-banks.

1B. On Beaverdam Creek, Limestone County, and Flint Creek, Mor-
gan County.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). —

2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Talladega County.

5. Lee County (Baker & Earle). North of Eclectic, Elmore County.
6A. Tuscaloosa County. d

7 (C2), dele, Dallas and Montgomery Counties (Mohr).

10W. Choctaw County.

11. Conecuh County.

12. Geneva County.
14 (2). Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Crataegus Crus-Galli, L. (C. Mohri, Beadle?)

What I take to be this species is a small tree with rather
thick shining leaves which one might believe to be evergreen if not
seen in winter. It has rather large dull red fruit.

Grows in calcareous soils, often a little damp, as 1n flatwoods
and prairies.

1B. Madison, Morgan and Franklin (?) Counties.

3. DeKalb, Jefferson and Shelby Counties.

7. Greene, Hale (Mohr), Dallas and Montgomery Counties.
8. North of Linden, Marengo County.

10W. Near Allenton, Wilcox County.

Crataegus Michauxii, Pers.
What I take to be this species is a crooked tree, sometimes

nearly a foot in diameter, with rough blackish bark, drooping
branches, and somewhat wedge-shaped grayish scurfy leaves.

POMACEAE 211

Grows in dry but moderately fertile sandy soils, often in old
tields, apparently confined to the coastal plain.

6B, 6C. Autauga County.

7. Sand near Selma.

10E. Pike, Barbour and Dale Counties.
13. Baldwin County.

Crataegus rufula, Sarg. (Formerly included in C. aestivalis
(Walt.) T. & G., from which it perhaps does not differ
much.* ) May Haw.

A small low-branched tree with brownish bark, differing from
all other haws in Alabama in having tender juicy fruit ripening in
May. This fruit makes a beautiful red jelly, which seems to be
scarcely known outside of the regions where the tree is indigenous.

Unlike our other haws, this grows in shallow ponds and
sloughs, where the water fluctuates a few to several feet with the
seasons. In Alabama it is chiefly confined to a few of the south-
ernmost counties.

12. Washington, Covington and Houston Counties.
13. Washington (Mohr), Monroe and Escambia Counties.
14. David's Lake and Pierce’s Landing, Mobile County (Mohr).

Crataegus uniflora, Muench.

One of the smallest of all our haws; a thorny shrub often
only two or three feet high. The fruit remains green for a long
time. It has no known use, except that it has been offered for
sale for ornamental purposes.

Grows in dry woods, or occasionally in old fields, ete. Not
very common.

2A. Jackson County (Harbison). Cullman County (Mohr).
2B, 6A. Tuscaloosa County.

6C. Autauga and Montgomery Counties.

10W. Along L. & N. R. R. north of Searcy, Butler County.
12. Covington County.

13. Mobile County (Mohr).
Crataegus armentalis, Beadle.

A low shrub, similar to the preceding, except that it is still
smaller, and has red fruit.

Grows in rocky woods in the plateau region. Originally de-
scribed from Marshall County, and pointed out to the writer by
W. Wolf in Cullman County in September, 1927.

*See Sargent, Jour. Arnold Arboretum 1:248-252. 1920.

212 BHCONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA
DRUPACEAE (or AMYGDALACEAE). Prium Famity.

About 10 genera and 125 species, trees and shrubs, mostly
in the northern hemisphere, chiefly noted for their edible fruits
(almond, peach, apricot, plum, cherry, etc.), but some yield lum-
ber, medicine, and other products, and some are ornamental.

CHRYSOBALANUS, L. (Geobalanus, Smail).
Deer Plum. GorpHER APPLE. GROUND OAK.

Chrysobalanus oblongifolius, Mx.

A low almost unbranched shrub, usually less than a foot high,
with stiff shiny pale green reticulated leaves which are evergreen
or nearly so, small white flowers in June, and rather large and
showy but uneatable fruits which ripen about September. It has
a network of underground stems, and often grows in patches of
considerable size. Its economic properties are unknown.

Common in dry sandy long-leaf pine forests in the lower
counties, where less than 1% of the area was planted in cotton in
1880. ‘This species, unlike most other shrubs, is indifferent to fire,
for when the tops are burned off the roots soon send up new
shoots, ready to bloom in a few weeks or months.

11 (?). Claiborne, Monroe County (Mohr).
12. Geneva and Covington Counties.
13. Common throughout.

PRUNUS, L. THE Plums, CHERRIES, etc.

This genus formerly included the almonds, peaches and apri-
cots, which are now put in a separate genus, 4imygdalus. ‘The
choke-cherries are put by some authorities in Padus and the ever-
green species with inedible fruit in Laurocerasus, but we have so
few of those that it is simpler to retain them in Prunus for the
present. In this genus, as in Rubus and Cratacgus, several species
of questionable validity have been described in late years from old-
field specimens; but four or five native species are about all that
can be readily identified in Alabama. ‘The latest monographic
treatment of Prunus proper is that of Wight, cited in the bibli-
ography, and the interested reader is referred to that for further
particulars.

DRUPACEAE 213

The species of Prunus (in the broader sense) range in size
from shrubs to trees. Most of them have edible fruits, and in
some species (prunes, plums, cherries) this has been developed by
cultivation in an important commercial product. ‘The ash of the
trees is said to be exceptionally poor in silica, but just what this
signifies is not clear. Most if not all of the species grow only in
places pretty well protected from fire.*

Prunus Americana, Marsh.
Witp (or CanapA) PLtumM. Prarrig Pum.

A small tree, usually only a few inches in diameter and about
ten feet tall, with rough flaky brownish bark a little different in
color from that of any other native plum, by means of which it is
easily recognized in winter. It blooms in March and April, and
ripens its fruit in late summer. The fruit is hardly fit to eat
when raw, but can be made into preserves; and itis said to be
capable of improvement by cultivation. ‘The tree is said to make
an excellent stcck for grafting exotic plums onto, and it is some-
times cultivated for ornament.

Grows in rich woods, especially on limestone outcrops and
in calcareous flatwoods. Nowhere abundant.

1A (?). Lauderdale County (Mohr).

1B. Colbert, Madison, Marshall and Blount Counties.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr).

2B. ‘Tuscaloosa County.

3. Jefferson, Bibb, Shelby and Talladega Counties.

4. Clay County (Mohr).

7. Pickens, Sumter, Greene, Autauga and Bullock Counties.
10W. Wilcox County.

Prunus lanata (Sudw.) Mackenzie and Bush.

A species closely related to the preceding, and perhaps easily
confused with it. Its known range is chiefly from Indiana to
Texas (something like the pecan), but Wolf finds it in Cullman
County, and Prof. Cocks reports it as common near Hatcher’s
Bluff in Dallas County.

Prunus hortulana, Bailey, a species originally described from culti-
vated specimens, and still not well understood, was reported by Dr. Mohrt+
from shell banks in the southern part of Mobile County (region 15); but

according to Wight and others its range is entirely north and west of Ala-
bama; so it is very likely that Dr. Mohr mistook something else for it.

*See Rhodora 18:201-203. Sept. 1916.
+Bull Torrey Bot. Club, 26:118, 1899; Plant Life of Ala., p. 551.

214 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Prunus angustifolia, Marsh. (P. Chicasa, Mx.)
Witp Plum. (CHickasaw PLuM.)

A shrub or small tree, growing usually in clumps or small
thickets. The flowers appear before the leaves in March, and the
fruit, which is either red or yellow, about an inch long, and good
to eat, either raw or preserved, ripens in May or June, according
to latitude and season.

This species is supposed to have been introduced by the In-
dians from somewhere farther west, but its natural range and hab-
itat (if any) have never been discovered. It grows in old fields
and fence-rows, nearly throughout the South outside of the moun-
tains, and seems to be most abundant in the regions that have been
cultivated the longest.

In Alabama it is common in regions 1B, 3, 5, 6C, 7, 8, and
10EF; and rare or unknown in 1A, 2A, 4, 6B, 12, 14 and 15.

Prunus umbellata, Ill. Hoc Prum. (SLOE).

A small tree, blooming in February and March. ‘The fruit
ripens in midsummer or later, and is smaller than that of P. angus-
tifolia, and hardly fit to eat.

Grows in dry woods and hammocks, mostly in the coastal
plain. Not common.

7. Along Catoma Creek 5 miles southwest of Montgomery. Near
Hatcher’s Bluff, Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties.

10W. or 11 (2). Clarke County (Mohr).

12. Geneva County.
13. Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties (Mohr).

Prunus injucunda, Small, reported from Alpine Mountain, Talladega
County, by Mohr (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 26:118. 1899), and P. mitts
Beadle (Biltmore Bot. Stud. 1:162. 1902), described from Lee County, are
regarded by Wight and later writers as mere varieties of P. wmbellata. They
may however be as distinct as some of the alleged species of Crataegus. Mr.
W. W. Ashe reports finding P. mitis about 5 miles east of Moundville,
Hale County, in August, 1926.

Prunus serotina, [hrh. WILp CHERRY.

A well-known tree, sometimes of medium size or larger, but
often blooming and bearing fruit when quite small. The flowers
appear with the leaves in March and April, and the fruit is ripe
by June.

DRUPACEAE 215

It is sometimes planted for ornament, and two horticultural
varieties have been named. The wood is one of the choicest for
cabinet-making, interior finish, scientific instruments, etc., but,
as in the case of the black walnut, practically all the best trees
have been used up, and there is very little of the wood on the mar-
ket now. The bark, collected in the fall and dried, is officinal.
It has tonic and sedative properties, and an infusion of it is ef-
ficacious in pulmonary complaints, and for that reason it is an
ingredient of various cough medicines. The leaves when partly
wilted are said to be very poisonous to cattle. The flowers furnish
honey. Birds are very fond of the fruit, and it can be eaten right
from the tree by mankind, but is better when made into jelly. The
seeds, like most other parts of the plant, contain a little prussic
acid, and for that reason it is best not to swallow them.

For additional information about this species see Circular 94
of the U. S. Forest Service.

The wild cherry grows naturally on bluffs and in ravines and
hammocks, where it is pretty well protected from fire. Like sev-
eral other trees with similar habitats, it is inclined to become a
roadside weed (its seeds being dropped along fences by birds) in
some parts of its range, especially northward. It is comparatively
scarce in natural habitats, and the following are the only indigenous
localities for it that I have noted in Alabama:

1B. Colbert County.

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

a: Clay, Coosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6C. Along Alabama River, Elmore and Montgomery Counties.

7 (:). Second bottoms at Lock 8 on Warrior River, Hale County.

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties; rare.
12. Along Pea River near Geneva.

Prunus australis, Beadle. (Biltmore Bot. Studies 1 :162, 1902.)

A tree something like the preceding, but smaller, and said to
differ chiefly in having the leaves broader, and rusty-tomentose
beneath. Described in 1902 from “clay soil at Evergreen,’ Con-
ecuh County (region 11?), and not yet known elsewhere, though
according to Mr. Ashe it is common enough around _ there.
Whether it grows only in clearings, or in some natural habitat,
does not seem to be on record.

216 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Prunus Alabamensis, Mohr. (P. Cuthbertii, Small?, P. serotina
neomontana, Sudw.?)

Whether the names in the preceding line belong to one, two
or three species is not certain; but I am inclined to apply them all
to a small tree with leaning or crooked trunk, differing from P.
serotina in these characters, and also in having blunter leaves with
rusty hairs along the midribs beneath, and in being more tolerant
Ob Tire:

It grows on rocky slopes of mountains in the northeastern

quarter of the state (and in Georgia).

3. Jefferson and Talladega Counties (Mohr, as P. Alabamensis).

4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties. Cheaha Mountain (Mohr,
as P. serotina neomontana).

The next species belongs to the section Laurocerasus (Lep-
tocarya, Nutt.), which is regarded by some as a distinct genus. It
differs from Prunus proper in having evergreen leaves, small
flowers, and small black inedible or even poisonous fruit.

Prunus Caroliniana (Mill.) Ait.
Mock OrANcE. (LAUREL CHERRY. WILp PrEacH.)

A handsome evergreen tree, usually below medium size, with
small white flowers in early spring, and dry black poisonous ber-
ries ripening in fall. It is a favorite ornamental tree in yards and
parks in the South, and is sometimes trimmed to hedge form. The
flowers may furnish some honey, but nearly all parts of the tree
are poisonous if eaten (but not to the touch).

Its natural habitat seems to be bluffs and hammocks, well pro-
tected from fire; but it is rare in the wild state, and many 1f not
most of the specimens seen outside of cultivation may have had
cultivated ancestors, and have sprung from seeds dropped by birds.

2B. Bluffs on Warrior River a few miles above Tuscaloosa.

7. Dallas and Montgomery Counties.

10E. In the pocosin, Pike County.

10W. West of Myrtlewood, Marengo County.

11. Conecuh County.

13. A few miles above Tensaw (Bartram). Mobile County (Mohr).
15. Some large old trees on a shell island in the bay 12 miles from

Mobile (Tuomey, 1850).

The next three families were formerly treated as one (Legum-
inosae), and they do have certain characteristics in common, es-
pecially the leguminous pods and the possession of nodules full of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria on their roots; but they differ consider-
ably in flower structure.

MIMOSACEAE 217

MIMOSACEAE. Mrmosa Famity.

About 75 genera and 1600 species, mostly shrubs and trees, in
warm, dry regions, such as Mexico, Asia Minor, South Africa,
and Australia. Many are ornamental.

ALBIZZIA, Durazzini.

Albizzia Julibrissin (Wiild.) Durazz. “Mrimosa.’*

A small to medium-sized tree with leaning or widely branched
trunk, smooth gray bark, feathery twice-compound leaves, which
fold up at night, and small fragrant flowers with long pink stamens
in dense spherical clusters suggesting powder-puffs, in May and
June.

Native of Asia, commonly cultivated for ornament, and es-
caping into fields and woods around cities and old settlements in
Talladega, Tuscaloosa, Hale, Autauga, Clarke, Monroe, Butler,
Henry, and doubtless other counties, mostly in the southern halt
of the state.

VACHELLIA, Wight & Arnott.

Vachellia Farnesiana (L.) Wight & Arn. (Acacia Farnesiana,
Willd. ) (OpopANAx. HUISACHE.)

A shrub or small tree, with small compound leaves, and small
feathery balls of fragrant yellow flowers. Cultivated for orna-
ment in warm climates, and frequently escaped along the west side
of Mobile Bay, according to Mohr. Supposed to be native in the
West Indies, southern Florida, and Texas.

CAESALPINIACEAE. Senna FAmIty.

About 110 genera and over 1,000 species, trees, shrubs and
herbs, widely distributed, the trees mostly tropical. Many are or-
namental, and some are medicinal. Quite a number of the herbs
are weeds.

CERCIS. i... Cjupas Trees)
Cercis Canadensis, LL. REDBUD.

A small leaning or crooked tree, seldom more than a foot in
diameter and thirty feet tall, with deciduous heart-shaped leaves,

*This common name belongs properly to the herbaceous genus Mimosa
(sensitive plants) in the same family, but it is now in pretty general use
in the South for this tree.

218 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

very handsome when covered with pink-purple flowers (exactly
the color of peach blossoms) in March, before the leaves appear.
The wood is of a rich brown color, and takes a good polish, but is
usually of too small dimensions to be of any commercial impor-
tance. The tree is often cultivated for ornament, and there is said
to be a double-flowered variety of it. The flowers furnish honey,
and the bark of the root is supposed to have some medicinal prop-
erties.
Grows in rich woods, especially in limestone regions.

1A. Limestone County.

1B. Colbert, Franklin, Madison, Morgan, Marshall, and probably all
the other counties ; common.

1C. Colbert and Morgan Counties.

2A. Cullman, Marshall, DeKalb and Blount Counties.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and ‘luscaloosa Counties, mostly on shaly
bluffs.

3. Common throughout.

5. Cleburne, Clay, Coosa, Chilton, Elmore, and probably scattered in
all the other counties.

6A. Fayette, Tuscaloosa and Elmore Counties.

6C. Elmore and Montgomery Counties.

7, 8. Common.

10E. Pike, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W, 11. Common.

1. On limestone outcrops in Covington and Houston Counties.

GLEDITSIA, Linnaeus (formerly spelled Gleditschia).
THe Honey Locusts.

Gleditsia triacanthos, L. (Honey) Locust.
(Fig. 54)

A medium-sized or large very thorny tree with compound de-
ciduous leaves, small greenish but fragrant flowers in spring, and
long flat crooked brown pods in fall. This is recommended as an
ornamental tree, but is better for hedges, on account of its formid-
able compound thorns. ‘The wood has a limited use for fence-
posts, hubs, etc. The flowers furnish honey, and the pulp in the
pods is eaten by domestic animals and small boys.

This appears to be native in bottoms and on limestone out-
crops in the Tennessee Valley, and on some of the richer soils in
the black belt and farther south, all the way to the upper part of
the Mobile delta. But most of the specimens seen at the present
time are along roadsides and in clearings (somewhat as in the case
of the black walnut, but more so), so that it is difficult to deter-

CAESALPINIACEAE 219

Fic. 54. Very thorny trunk of Gleditsia triacanthos, 17

inches in diameter, on limestone slope about a mile west of Lim
Rock, Jackson County. March 15, 1913.

220 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

mine its natural distribution. Some of the roadside specimens
may have been purposely planted, but others may have sprung up
from seeds dropped by animals.

G. aquatica, Marsh. (G. monosperma, Walt.), a similar-looking but
smaller tree, with small one-seeded pods, has long been known in Georgia
and Mississippi, and in other states farther east and west, but there seems
to be absolutely no record of it for Alabama, which is rather surprising.

Possibly the forms east and west of here are really distinct species; but if
not, it may be found in Alabama some time.

PARKINSONIA, Linnaeus. (Pato VERDE)
Parkinsonia aculeata, L.

A small tree, with narrow pinnate leaves and yellow flowers.
Occasionally cultivated for ornament, and rarely escaping around
Mobile, according to Mohr. Native of the tropics.

LEGUMINOSAE proper (or FABACEAE). Putse or PEA FAmILy.

A large family of world-wide distribution, with about 350
genera and over 1,000 species, containing many useful and orna-
mental and a few poisonous plants. In yield of food and fodder
it is exceeded only by the grasses. Its representatives in temperate
regions are mostly herbs, but there are in Alabama two trees and
eight or ten shrubs and vines.

Cladrastis lutea (Mx.) Koch. (C. tinctoria, Raf.)

CLADRASTIS, Rafinsque. (Only one species.)

YELLOW-WOOD.
(Fig. 55)

A small to medium-sized tree, with smooth bark, brittle
branches, deciduous pinnate leaves with large alternate leaflets,
and white flowers in April and May. ‘The largest specimens I
have seen are about 14 inches in diameter and 50 feet tall, near
Lock 14 on the Warrior River. It seems to bloom and fruit rather
sparingly in Alabama.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament. The wood yields a
yellow dye.

Grows mostly on rich rocky bluffs along rivers.

1A. Along Tennessee River at Sheffield, Colbert County (M. C. Wil-
son). Seen in 1922 on south bank of Mussel Shoals, a few miles farther
upstream, but probably now drowned out by the Wilson Dam.

LEGUMINOSAE 221

Fic. 55. Trunk of Cladrastis, about a foot in
diameter, on rich bluffs facing north, on Warrior
River near Lock 14, about 13 miles above Tuscaloosa.
Photograph by H. E. Wheeler, September 3, 1926.

2B. Frequent on shaly bluffs on left side of Warrior River from the
western corner of Jefferson County (formerly Squaw Shoals, now Lock 17)
down to about eight miles above Tuscaloosa. (See Jour. Elisha Mitchell
mem soc 37 :157. 1922.)

10W. A few small specimens on the high bluff at Claiborne, Monroe
County.

AMORPHA, Linnaeus. (fF AtsE INpIco).

Shrubs, with deciduous pinnate leaves, and spikes of small
bluish flowers which have only one petal. Several species have
been described in recent years, but they all look much alike, and I
am not sure that I have identified them correctly.

222 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Amorpha fruticosa, L.

A shrub with deep violet-colored flowers, in April and May.
Occasionally cultivated for ornament in the North.

Grows mostly on banks of rivers and creeks, and especially in
limestone regions.

2A. Along Calvert Prong of Warrior River, Blount County.
2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Cherokee, Etowah, Calhoun, Talladega and Jefferson Counties.
5. Rocky banks of Tallapoosa River above Tallassee, Elmore County.
6A. Tuscaloosa County.

7. Sumter, Marengo and Dallas Counties.

8. Marengo and Dallas Counties.

9. Black Bluff on Tombigbee River, Sumter County.

10W. Wilcox County.

11. Clarke and Washington Counties.

12. Geneva County.

14. Lower part of Mobile delta. (A. glabra?)

Amorpha virgata, Small.

Resembles A. fruticosa in general appearance, but has quite a
different habitat, growing in dry woods, mostly on mountains.
Blooms in May.

1B or 2A. “Jackson County, wooded ridges at Gurley’s, 1200 feet”
(Mohr). (Gurley is in Madison County, but not far from Jackson. If Dr.
Mohr’s station was on limestone slopes it was in region 1B, but if on the
sandstone of the Coal Measures higher up it was in 2A.)

4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Cleburne County. On rocky slopes near Coosa and Tallapoosa
Rivers in northern part of Elmore County. (These last possibly A. fruti-
cosa.)

A. glabra, Desf., is reported by Dr. Mohr from swamps and marshes
near Mobile (region 14 or 15).

A. montana, F. E. Boynton, and A. Tennesseensis, Shuttl., are said by
F. E. Boynton (Biltmore Bot. Studies 1:138,140. 190 ) to occur in Ala-
bama, but no localities are specified. One growing along Eight-mile Creek
in Cullman County is identified as A. Tennesseensis by Wolf.

WISTERIA, Nuttall.* (Bradieia, Adans., Kraunhia, Raf.)
Wisteria frutescens (L,.) Poir. (Witp) WISTERIA,

A woody vine with deciduous pinnate leaves, and racemes of
light blue flowers, in April. Looks much like the common culti-
vated (Asiatic) wisteria, but is smaller, and has fewer flowers. It
is said to be occasionally cultivated.

*This genus was named after Prof. Caspar Wistar, and should have
been spelled Wistaria. That spelling has been used in some books, but the
modern practice is to stick to the original spelling unless it is too obviously
a misprint.

LEGUMINOSAE 223

Grows in swamps and on river-banks, mostly in the coastal

plain.
1A. South sice of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County.
2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.
6A. Tuscaloosa County.
6C. Montgomery County.
10W. Wilcox County.
11. Choctaw and Clarke Counties.
12. Geneva County.
14. Mobile County (Mohr). Lower part of the delta.

DAUBENTONIA, DeCandolle. (No common name.)

Daubentonia longifolia (Cav.) DC. (D. punicea DC.; Ses-
bania Cavanillesti, Wats. )

A large woody herb or short-lived shrub, about six feet tall,
with pinnate leaves and showy racemes of red or yellow flowers, in
summer. (The name D. punicea has been applied to the red form
and D. longifolia to the yellow form, but they do not seem to differ
in any other respect, and they are here treated as one species.)
Probably native of Mexico. Occasionally cultivated for ornament.
Said to be poisonous to sheep. (See Marsh in bibliography. )

Runs wild along and near the Gulf coast from Apalachicola
westward, especially in Texas, where it appears almost like a na-
tive. Dr. Mohr found it in several places around Mobile, and I
have seen a little of it in Montgomery County.

ROBINIA, Linnaeus. THE Locusts.

Robinia Pseudo-acacia, LL. (BLiackx) Locust.

A medium-sized tree, seldom more than a foot in diameter and
40 feet tall in Alabama, with furrowed dark brown bark, deciduous
pinnate leaves, and racemes of fragrant cream-colored flowers, in
late spring. The heart-wood is dark-colored, very heavy, hard,
strong and durable, and is used largely for fence-posts, cross-ties
and telegraph poles farther north, especially around New York,
where it is not native, but is commonly cultivated, and escaped
along roadsides, etc. It is not abundant enough in Alabama to be
of much importance, but I have been told that in Madison County
a good deal of the wood has been made into insulator pins, for
which purpose it is considered superior to all other American
woods. It also makes good fuel. The tree is often cultivated for
ornament or shade, and 16 horticultural varieties have been listed.

224 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

The bark of the root possesses tonic and emetic properties, but is
not officinal.

On account of its being cultivated in many places, and its
tendency to spread to roadsides, clearings and thickets, it is not
easy to determine the natural range of this species. Its original
habitat seems to be rocky (especially calcareous) woods and river
banks, where the soil is moderately fertile and fire is infrequent.
It is not as common in Alabama as in the mountains farther north,
and the following are all the indigenous localities known for it at

present.

1A. On limestone near Elkmont, Limestone County, and bluffs on south
side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County. On Tennessee River, Lauderdale
County.

1B. On Smithers Mountain and Monte Sano in Madison County, and
along the Tennessee River in Jackson County. On mountain slopes, Morgan
County.

2A. On Monte Sano, Madison County, Sand Mountain, Marshall
County, Warnock Mountain, Blount County, and Chandler Mountain, St.
Clair County.

3. Limestone slopes of Lookout Mountain, DeKalb County.

4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Bluff on Big Sandy Creek, Tallapoosa County.

6C or 7. House Bluff, Autauga County.

It also runs wild in a few places in the coastal plain, which is
rather unusual, for most plants, or at least most trees, do not seem

to thrive even in cultivation, south of their natural range.

Robinia viscosa, Vent.

A shrub or small tree, with pale pink flowers. Rare in the
wild state, but occasionally cultivated. Three horticultural varie-
ties have been described.

Grows in dry woods on the mountains.

2A. Near Mentone, on Lookout Mountain, DeKalb County (Mohr).
4. Cedar Mountain, Clay County (if identified correctly).

Robinia hispida, L.
A low shrub, with showy pink flowers. Planted for orna-
ment, like the preceding. Habitat about the same as for FR. viscosa.
4. On Cheaha Mountain, the highest point in the state (Mohr).
Robinia Boyntoni, Ashe.

A shrub, little known, and perhaps not very different from

the preceding.

2A. Cullman County (W. Wolf). About 5 miles from Albertville,
Marshall County (Harbison).

RUTACEAE

bo
bo
on

RUTACEAE. Rue Famticty.

About 100 genera and 1,000 species, mostly aromatic shrubs,
growing in the warmer parts of the world. Includes the various
citrous fruits, and several medicinal and ornamental plants.

XANTHOXYLUM, Linnaeus. (Including Fagara, L.)
(PricKLy ASH, etc.)

Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis, L. (NX. Carolinianum, Lam.)
(TootHACHE TREE. PILLENTERRY.)

A small tree, aromatic and prickly, with glossy deciduous pin-
nate leaves, and small greenish flowers, blooming in April.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament or shade. The bark is an
active stimulant, and as such enters into the composition of various
medicines. The berries are also medicinal, but not officinal.

Grows mostly in dry calcareous or phosphatic soil, protected
from fire, in the coastal plain. Escaped from cultivation in many
places, so that its natural range is uncertain. Nowhere common,

except perhaps near the coast.

6A. (?). ‘Tuscaloosa County (Mohr).

6C. Near Montgomery; perhaps not native.

7. Hale, Marengo, Dallas and Montgomery Counties (Mohr). Cal-
careous creek bottoms about 3 and 7 miles south of Eutaw, Greene County.
Chalk bluffs near Demopolis. Used for firewood around Gallion (P. S.
Bunker ).

10W. On limestone, Wilcox County.

11 (?). Clarke County (Mohr).

15. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Xanthoxylum Americanum, Mili. (NorTHERN Prickiy As)

A prickly shrub, with dull green leaves. The bark is officinal,
like that of the preceding species.

2B. Shale bluffs on Hurricane Creek near its mou’h, Tuscaloosa
County. Also near Lock 14, a few miles farther up the Warrior River.
Very rare in Alabama. Otherwise known only from Georgia and north-
ward.

PTELEA, Linnaeus. (Hop TREEs).
Ptelea trifoliata, L.

A shrub or rarely a small tree, with ternate deciduous leaves,
greenish flowers in April, and wafer-like fruits about an inch in
diameter, in terminal clusters. Sometimes cultivated for orna-
ment. One horticultural variety has been named. The bark,

226 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

leaves and fruits are bitter and tonic, and used in some places in
domestic medicine, but they are not officinal.

Grows on cliffs, river-banks, and in dry calcareous woods,
protected from fire; not common. Sometimes associated with
Staphylea trifolia, which it somewhat resembles.

2B. Cliffs on Hurricane Creek, and on Warrior River about ten miles
above Tuscaloosa (like the preceding species).

3. Limestone hills near Attalla and Lagarde, Etowah County. Bibb
County (Mohr).

4. Rocky brow of Cedar Mountain, Clay County.

5. Clay and Tallapoosa Counties (Earle). Rocky banks of Tallapoosa
River above Tallassee, Elmore County.

6C or 7. House Bluff, Autauga County.

7. Along Catoma Creek, Montgomery County. Dallas County (‘30
feet tall,” Cocks).

10W. Along Pursley Creek near Estelle, Wilcox County. Bluffs
along Alabama River at Lisbon, Clarke County (Mohr), and Claiborne,
Monroe County.

Ptelea microcarpa, Small, is credited to Alabama by its author, but the
Alabama specimens he saw cannot be separated from P. trifoliata.

SIMARUBACEAE. Quvuassia Famity.

About 30 genera and 150 species, trees and shrubs with bitter
bark, in the warmer parts of the world.

AILANTHUS, Desfontaines.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle. (A. glandulosus, Desf.)
(TREE oF HEAVEN.)

A stout but more or less crooked tree, with long pinnate de-
ciduous leaves and clusters of small greenish ill-scented flowers,
in May. Often cultivated for shade, but has nothing to recom-
mend it except rapid growth, for it is a coarse, cheap-looking tree,
and the ill-scented flowers make it a nuisance for a few weeks
every spring. It is said to be only the male flowers that smell,
though, and if only female trees were planted that objection would
be removed.

Native of China. Escapes from cultivation around some of
our cities and towns, in much the same manner as Broussonetia,
already described, but much less abundant than that species. (It
seems to be commoner farther north, even around New York
City.) In low woods near Bear Swamp in Autauga County it
grows tall and straight like a native forest tree.

MELIACEAE 227

MELIACEAE. Maunocany Famity.

About 40 genera and 600 species, trees and shrubs, nearly all
tropical. Several are valuable for their wood (e.g., mahogany and
“Spanish cedar’), and some are cultivated for ornament.

MELIA, Linnaeus.
Melia Azedarach, L. CHINABERRY.* (UMBRELLA TREE.)

A small to medium-sized tree, with short more or less crooked
trunk and spreading branches, yellowish-brown heart-wood, glossy
dark green compound deciduous leaves, fragrant purple flowers in
rather large clusters, in March and April, and straw-colored ber-
ries which hang on most of the winter.

A favorite shade-tree in city and country throughout the cotton
belt, especially among the negroes ;+ planted as far north as Cape
Charles, Virginia, and west to Arizona, southern California, and
northern Mexico. It grows rapidly and makes a dense shade, and
is much less objectionable than Broussonetia and Ailanthus. The
preferred form is the var. wmbraculifera (umbrella china), which
divides into numerous spreading branches a few feet from the
ground. It is remarkably free from insect enemies; and it is be-
lieved by some that grass will grow under a chinaberry tree better
than under most other trees.

The wood, on account of its color, has some uses, but it is
not available in large enough pieces or sufficient quantities to be
important. ‘The bark has some medicinal properties. The flow-
ers yield honey. The berries when full-grown but still hard and
green are favorite ammunition for popguns; and the ripe seeds,
which are large and fluted and easily pierced endwise, make beads
that can be readily dyed any color. The ripe berries are said to
intoxicate birds that feed on them.

*This is its usual name throughout the South, but northern writers,
especially those who have never seen it growing, usually ignore this name
entirely and call it “Pride of India,’ or “China tree.’ The name “china-
berry” does not appear in Small’s Flora, nor even in the catalogue part of
Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama, which was edited in Washington when he
was too old and infirm to look after it properly. Some writers who know
it by name only have confused it with Sapindus, which is called “wild china”
in the books. In California it is commonly called “umbrella tree.’ Unedu-
cated people often call it ‘“chaneyberry.”’

+I have seen negre houses shaded with it even in California.

228 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Native of Asia. Long cultivated in this country, and running
wild in old fields, along fence-rows, in moderately rich woods, etc.,
mostly in the southern half of the state. (The variety wmbraculi-
fera either does not run wild much, or else it reverts to the or-
dinary form when left to itself long enough.) Occasional in the
Coosa Valley and Piedmont region, common in the black belt and
western red hills (where negroes are most numerous), and scat-
tered in other parts of the coastal plain.

EUPHORBIACEAE. Spurck Famity.

A large family, with 250 genera and over 4,000 species, grow-
ing mostly in dry or rich soils and in warm climates. Includes
quite a number of ornamental, medicinal and poisonous plants,
and weeds, as well as a few food plants. Many of the species
have milky juice, which in certain tropical trees is an important

Fic. 56. Croton Alabamensis on dry shale bluff of Warrior River,
facing west, about ten miles above Tuscaloosa. Photograph by Walter B.
Jones, June 21, 1928.

EUPHORBIACEAE 229

source of rubber. Most of the species in temperate regions are
herbs, but Alabama has three native shrubs and one introduced
tree, besides several cultivated species.

CROTON, Linnaeus.
(Figs. 56, 57)
Croton Alabamensis, FE. A. Smith.

An evergreen shrub covered with close-fitting scales,
which have a silvery appearance on the under sides of the
leaves. Flowers inconspicuous, mostly in February and March. The
plant has some ornamental value, and Dr. Smith, the discoverer,
had it growing in his yard at the University for many years, but
it is so rare that it is little known, and is not handled by horticul-
turists at all.

This is one of the rarest shrubs in the United States, and
there is little likelihood of its ever being found growing wild out-
side of Alabama. It was first discovered by Dr. Smith in 1877,
on dry limestone rocks (Silurian) along the Cahaba River near
Pratt’s Ferry (long since replaced by a bridge) in Bibb County
(region 3). This locality was visited by Dr. Mohr in 1882 and
by the writer in 1906 and 1924. The plant is rather abundant
there, forming small dense thickets, which are said to be known
locally as “privet brakes.” In December, 1905, I found it on
shaly cliffs on the left side of the Warrior River about ten miles
above Tuscaloosa (region 2B); and on many subsequent visits it
has been found to be fairly common along that river for a mile or
two, but apparently no farther. Specimens from there have been
transplanted to the University campus, where they have been grow-
ing for several years.

References :—Plant World 9 :106. 1906; Jour. Elisha Mitchell
Sel. Soc. 37:157, 159. 1922; Mohr 6, 9; Plant Life of Ala. 93-94,
591, pl. 5.

STILLINGIA, Linnaeus.
Stillingia aquatica, Chapm. (No common name. )
An erect shrub several feet tall, branched above the middle,
with yellowish finely toothed willow-like deciduous leaves, and

spikes of small yellowish apetalous flowers, blooming all summer.
Stems about an inch in diameter at the base, rapidly tapering up-

230 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 57. Near view of leaves and flowers of Croton Alabamensis on
University campus. Walter B. Jones, March 27, 1926.

ward. ‘The wood when dry is lighter than cork, but it is not
abundant enough in Alabama to be known or used for anything.

Grows in shallow ponds in the lower part of the coastal plain.
Common in several such places between Orange Beach and Oak, in
the extreme southern part of Baldwin County (region 13). Not
known west of Florida until seen there (June 13, 1912).

SEBASTIANA, Sprengel.

Sebastiana ligustrina (Mx.) Muell. Arg.
(No common name.)

A shrub, something like the preceding, but slenderer and
greener. Blooms in May and June. Economic properties un-
known.

Grows in low hammocks, creek and river bottoms, etc.; al-
most confined to the coastal plain.

2B. Along North River at crossing of Watermelon Road, Tuscaloosa
County.

5. Along the two large rivers in Elmore County, about seven miles
above Wetumpka and a mile or two above Tallassee.

6A. Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

KUPHORBIACEAE 231

6C. Greene, Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Montgomery County, and perhaps all the others too.

8. Marengo and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Pike, Crenshaw, Coffee and Dale Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Marengo, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Washington, Houston and Geneva Counties.

13. Near Conecuh River east of Brewton and Flomaton, Escambia
County. Mobile County (Mohr).

SAPIUM, P. Browne.
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. (CHINESE TALLOW TREE.)

A small tree, with leaves much like those of some species of
Populus, and spikes of small greenish apetalous flowers in spring.
Fruit small, dry, with three oily seeds. Most of the plant is pois-
onous, but the seeds are said to be used in some parts of China as
a substitute for tallow.

Native of China or Japan; occasionally cultivated for orna-
ment, and escapes sparingly around Mobile (Mohr) and other
southern seaports.

EMPETRACEAE. Crowserry FAMILY.

A very small family, with three genera and five species, all
evergreen shrubs, in temperate regions.

CERATIOLA, Michaux. (Only one species.)
Ceratiola ericoides, Mx. (SAND-HILL) RosEMARY.

A much-branched shrub 1 to 6 feet tall, with slender erect
branches, short awl-like evergreen leaves much like those of the
northern spruces, and inconspicuous flowers and fruits. It has
no known use, though it might be used for decorative purposes if
there was enough of it, and it would be very ornamental if it could
be cultivated.

Grows in the poorest white sands, where earthworms are un-
known and the vegetation is too sparse to carry fire. (Commonest
in Florida).

13. Washington and Mobile Counties (Mohr). Sandy ridges west of
Mobile (Tuomey).

15. Old dunes south of Bon Secour (Tuomey) and Orange Beach.
Baldwin County.

232 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

ANACARDIACEAE. Sumac or CasHEw FaAmMILy.

About 60 genera and 400 species, trees, shrubs and vines,
mostly tropical. Some are cultivated for ornament, some have
edible fruit (e.g., mango and cashew), some are medicinal, and
some poisonous.

COTINUS, Adanson. (SMOKE-TREES).

Cotinus Americanus, Nutt. (Rhus cotinoides, Nutt.)
“CHITTIM-woop”’* (YELLOW-WOOD. )

(Figs. 58-61)

A small irregular tree, usually six or eight inches in diameter
and about twenty feet tall, with brownish scaly bark and simple
leaves. The flowers are small, in feathery clusters, and appear in
spring, about the time the leaves are full grown. The whole plant
is pervaded with a sumac odor, and it was formerly classed as one
of the sumacs (Rhus). The branches break or split off very read-
ily, and it is unusual to find a tree, either wild or cultivated, with-
out long scars on the trunk from this cause.

Like the south European smoke-tree or Venetian sumac (Rhus
Cotinus), which it closely resembles, this is sometimes cultivated
for ornament, more as a curiosity than anything else, for it is not
particularly handsome. Although this is one of the rarest trees in
North America, its wood is or has been used for one of the com-
monest purposes, namely, fuel. I saw a whole wagon-load of it,
cut into stove lengths, in the streets of Huntsville in the spring of
1906, but I was informed that it was not usually burned alone, but
mixed with other woods. Its price was about the same as that of
any other stove-wood. But as it grows in places which are al-
most impossible of cultivation, it is not likely to be exterminated
very soon. The heart-wood is dark and very durable, and is said
to have been used for fence-posts. An orange dye can be extracted
from it, and this fact is said to have caused the destruction of the
most accessible trees during the Civil War.7

*There seems to be a widespread belief among the people of Madison
County that this is identical with the “shittim wood” of the ancient He-
brews, but that is quite unfounded. Our tree does not even belong to the
same family, and it is confined to the United States.

+See Sargent’s Silva, 3:4. 1892.

ANACARDIACEAE 233

_ Fic. 58. Base of trunks of clump of Cotinus (the largest about a foot
in diameter) on limestone slope of Monte Sano near Taylorsville, Madison
County. March 17, 1913.

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 59. Tops of same trees as in preceding pic-
ture, looking toward Tennessee River. At left is a cedar,
leaning away from the deciduous trees, like the evergreen
oaks in Figs. 38 and 39.

ANACARDIACEAE 225

Fic. 60. Cotinus on limestone, north slope
of Valhermosa Mountain, in northeastern part
of Morgan County. September 28, 1927.

References :—Buckley 2, Mohr 2, 6; Sargent, Garden & For-
est 4:340. 1891.

Known in Alabama only on dry slopes of Bangor or Moun-
tain Limestone in the eastern part of the Tennessee Valley. The
first botanist to report it from Alabama was S. B. Buckley, who
found it in April, 1842, on the south side of the Tennessee River,
presumably in Morgan County, and on the “Bailee place” near
New Market, Madison County, but apparently did not publish the
fact until about forty years later. It was re-discovered at the lat-
ter place in 1882 by Dr. Mohr, who found it also near Gurley and

236 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 61. Leaves and flowers of Cotinus Americanus, from a tree planted
by Dr. Eugene A. Smith in his yard at the University. Photograph by
Walter B. Jones, May 22, 1926.

ANACARDIACEAE 237

on Monte Sano.* I have found it locally abundant on rocky slopes
of the mountains east of New Market, Huntsville, and Taylors-
ville, all in Madison County, and in Morgan County east of Cotaco
Creek.

Prof. Sargent said of it in his Tenth Census report on forests
(vol. 9, p. 52. 1884) “In Alabama nearly exterminated”; but
amended that in the last volume of his Silva (14:99. 1902) by
saying that it was still common near Huntsville. There ought to
be a good deal of it yet in the comparatively unexplored mountains
of Jackson County, as well as in Madison and Morgan.

RHUS, Linnaeus. THE SuMAc(H)s.

Strong-scented shrubs or small trees, with pinnate leaves, and
fuzzy red berries in dense terminal clusters. (The poison sumacs,
with whitish berries in loose clusters, and the sweet sumacs, with
early flowers and trifoliate leaves, formerly put in Rhus, are now
treated as separate genera. )

Rhus copallina, L. (BLAack) SUMAC.

Usually a shrub, but sometimes a small tree 6 inches in diam-
eter and 25 feet tall, or even larger. Blooms in midsummer. Clus-
ters of fruit brick red, drooping in winter.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament, or at least offered for
sale by nurserymen. ‘The leaves are. astringent, and have been
used in the mountains for tanning and dyeing. Its medicinal prop-
erties are probably very similar to those of the next species.

Grows in dry open woods, and often spreads to old fields,
clearings and roadsides. It seems to be able to stand a moderate
amount of fire, for it often grows in long-leaf pine forests, though
it does not attain a large size there. Common nearly throughout
the state, but avoids the richest and poorest soils. Noted in every
region except 8 and 14, and there is no known reason why it should

*Dr. A. Gattinger in his Flora of Tennessee (1901) says that Dr. Mohr
found it in Limestone County, but that must be a mistake. Several works
on trees give as one locality for it the “Cheat Mountains” of Tennessee; but
I have never been able to locate any such mountains on any map, or to dis-
cover who was responsible for that report. “There seems to be no other
record of its occurrence in Tennessee, but as it grows within a few miles of
that state, it would not be at all surprising to find it north of the state line.

Outside of Alabama it is known from a few places in Missouri, Arkansas,
Oklahoma and Texas.

238 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

not grow in the former, except that several plants which seem to
like iron are scarce there, and this may be one of that category.

Rhus glabra, L. (Waite, or RED) Sumac.

Resembles the preceding in size and general appearance, but
the twigs and under side of the leaves are covered with a waxy
coating, it blooms a month or two earlier (May and June), and
the clusters of fruit are bright red, and erect. It is just as orna-
mental, or perhaps a little more so. A decoction of the berries is
acid and astringent, and is officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.
The leaves and bark are non-officinal drugs. In Dekalb County
I have been told that the bark of the root is used in poultices.

Grows in moderately dry and rich soils, protected from fire;
oftener along roadsides, etc., than in natural habitats. Widely dis-
tributed over the state, but commonest northward. Its known dis-
tribution south of the black belt is as follows:

8. Wilcox and Barbour Counties.

9. Wilcox County.

10E. Barbour County.

10W. Wilcox, Clarke, Monroe and Butler Counties.
11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

Some years ago Dr. E. L. Greene (see bibliography) subdivided Rhus
glabra into what he considered 29 distinct species. One of those, R. atro-
zirens, was based on a single collection (habitat not stated) from the vicinity
of Gadsden. How many other of these alleged species are to be expected
in Alabama it is impossible to say; but their status is at present very doubt-
ful, something like the Crataegus forms already mentioned.

Rhus typhina, ., the northern “staghorn sumac,” is said by Prof. Sar-
gent (Silva 3:16. 1892) to extend south to central Alabama; but that is.
probably an error, for it has never been verified.

SCHMALTZIA, Desvaux. (THE SWEET SuMaAcs).

Slender shrubs, with the odor of Rhus, but with leaves ternate,
and yellowish flowers in small clusters, appearing before the leaves
in early spring. The berries are much like those of Rhus. These
plants are not poisonous, but look much like some of the poisonous
species in the next genus.

Schmaltzia aromatica (Ait.) Small. (Ahus aroimatica, Ait.)

Grows 3 to 6 feet tall, and has velvety leaves. Sometimes
cultivated for ornament; recommended for rock gardens. The
bark of the root is a non-officinal drug.

ANACARDIACEAE 239

Grows mostly on dry hillsides of limestone or shale, in the
northern half of the state.

1B. Common on limestone slopes, Jackson, Madison, Morgan, Colbert,
Franklin, Marshall and Blount Counties.

2A. Near Calvert Prong of Warrior River northwest of Chepultepec,
Blount County.

2B. Common on Warrior River bluffs about ten miles above Tusca-
loosa.

3. Lookout Mountain (Mohr). Blount County.

4. Summit of Cheaha Mountain (Mohr).

Schmaltzia crenata (Mill.) Greene. (Described in his Leaf-
ets ele Nee.) L90a,)
Differs from the preceding in being only about half as tall,
and having smooth leaves.

Grows in dry woods in the coastal plain; rather rare.

6C. South of Tuskegee, Macon County.
10E.' Near Ozark, Dale County (Mohr).
12. Dry woods about 4 miles southwest of Hartford, Geneva County.

TOXICODENDRON, Miller. THE Potson Sumacs, ete.

Small trees, shrubs or vines, with pinnate or ternate leaves,
flowers much like those of Rhus, but berries smooth, greenish
white, in loose axillary clusters. The plants are very poisonous
to the skin of most people.

Toxicodendron pinnatum, Mill. (Rhus Vernix, L.; R. ven-
enata, D.C.)
(THUNDERWOoD, Porson Docwoop, Porson ELpER.)

A large shrub or small tree, resembling the true sumacs in
habit, with smooth bark, and smooth pinnate leaves. Blooms in
late spring. Although very poisonous, its juice has been used for
lacquer or black dye.

Grows in sandy bogs, non-alluvial swamps, etc., mostly where
less than 5% of the area was cultivated in cotton in 1880. Rarely
seen in or near the Tennessee Valley and black belt.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr).

3. Near Woodstock, Bibb County.
4. Swampy place in saddle between Cedar Mountain and the main Blue
Ridge, Clay County.

6. Fayette, Pickens, Tuscaloosa and Chilton Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

7. Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties.

6. Fayette, Pickens, Tuscaloosa and Chilton Counties.

11. Clarke County.

12. Washington County.
13. Common in all the counties, except perhaps Escambia.

240 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Toxicodendron goniocarpum, Greene.* (hus radicans, L., in
part). Porson lvy.

A well-known vine, with smooth ternate deciduous leaves,
attaching itself to rocks, trees, fence-posts, etc., by innumerable
rootlets, and climbing often to the tops of trees. Stems occasion-
ally three inches in diameter (Fayette County), but usually less
than an inch. Blooms in May.

This is one of the commonest and best known poisonous plants
in North America. All parts of it contain a non-volatile oil, tox-
icodendrol, which produces an intense irritation of the skin, caus-
ing small blisters, which usually last several days. Some people are
immune to it, though, and cattle seem to eat the leaves with im-
punity. The fresh leaves were formerly officinal in the U. S.
Pharmacopoiea.

References :—Grant & Hansen, McAtee.

Grows in rich woods and swamps, and occasionally along
fences and in yards (not as frequently here as around New York,
though). Like nearly all other woody vines, it seems to require
almost complete protection from fire; which suggests a method
of eradicating it where its presence is not desired. It is common in
nearly all parts of the state.

1A. Along Tennessee River, Colbert County.

1B. Limestone slopes, etc., Madison and Morgan Counties.
1C. Colbert, Lawrence and Morgan Counties.

2A. Cullman, Marshall, Blount and Etowah Counties.
2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Frequent throughout.

5. Cleburne, Clay, Coosa and Elmore Counties.

6A. Frequent throughout.

6B. Bibb and Autauga Counties.

6C. Greene and Hale Counties.

7. Frequent.

8. Marengo and Pike Counties.

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties.

10W, 11. Frequent.

12. Geneva County.

13. Escambia and Covington Counties.

14. Common in upper part of the delta.

Toxicodendron quercifolium (Steud.) Greene.* (Rhus To.i-
codendron, 1,., in part). Porson Oak.
A much smaller plant than the preceding, growing erect and
about two feet tall, with leaflets thicker, coarsely toothed, and

*Leaflets, 1:127. 1905.

ANACARDIACEAE 241

sometimes a little hairy. Probably a little less poisonous than the
other species. Blooms in May.

Grows in dry sandy or rocky woods, subject to occasional
fires, usually associated with long-leaf pine, in regions where less
than 1% of the area was cultivated in cotton in 1880.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Blount and Etowah Counties.

2B. Jefferson, Shelby and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. On chert and sandstone ridges, Talladega and Jefferson Counties.
4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Chilton County.

6A. Tuscaloosa County.

6B. Rather common throughout.

6C. Autauga County.

9. Sumter County.

10K. Barbour and Coffee Counties.

10W. Mountains near West Butler, Choctaw County.
12. Covington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Clarke County.

CYRILLACEAE. Tyvy Famity.

Includes three genera and about a dozen species, small trees
or shrubs, in the warmer parts of America.

CYRILLA, L. Tyty. (Also spelled Tritt and TicHTrye).

Cyrilla racemiflora, L.
(Map 20)

A large shrub or small tree, with crooked trunk, sometimes 8
inches in diameter, partly evergreen leaves, and racemes of small
white flowers in June and July. It would probably be cultivated
for ornament if it was better known. It is one of the important
honey-yielding plants.

Grows in branch and creek swamps, with moderately rich but
not calcareous soil, in and near the coastal plain. (See map.)

5. Coosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties. Lee County (Baker & Earle).
6A. Bibb, Chilton, Autauga and Elmore Counties.

6B, 6C. Autauga County.

7. Near Hatcher’s Bluff, Dallas County (Cocks).

8. Pike County.

10K. Crenshaw, Coffee, Dale and Covington Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Clarke, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw and Conecuh Counties.

12, 13. Common throughout.

15. Near Fairhope and Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

242 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Ly iy : {
MAP + ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF
CYRILLA RACEMIFLORA

AND INLAND LIMIT OF CLIFTONIA

Map 20. Approximate distribution of Cyrilla racemiflora and inland
limit of Cliftonia.

CYRILLACEAE 243

CLIFTONIA, Banks. (Only one species).

Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sarg. (C. ligustrina (Willd.)
Spreng. ) Tyry.
(Map 20)

A handsome shrub or small tree, with a maximum diameter
of about 8 inches, and a height of about 35 feet, but usually less
than half those dimensions. The leaves are glossy and evergreen,
and the flowers are white, in small erect clusters (suggesting can-
dles on a Christmas tree), appearing in March and April, and fol-
lowed by small sharply three-angled fruits in fall.

Small specimens are sold by nurserymen for ornamental pur-
poses. Both Sargent and Mohr state that the wood makes excel-
lent fuel, but I never saw any of it cut for that purpose. Prof.
Stelle recommends it for shuttles, and in Georgia it used to be
used for hames. The flowers are an important source of honey.

Grows in sour non-alluvial swamps, free from mud, lime and
sulphur, in the lower parts of the coastal plain, where the summers
are rainy and less than 1% of the area was cultivated in cotton in
1880. Often forms dense thickets or “bays.”

12. Covington and Geneva Counties, and perhaps Houston.
13. Abundant, especially in Mobile and Escambia Counties.
15. Near Orange Beach, Balawin County.

AQUIFOLIACEAE. Hotty Famiry.

Includes four or five genera and about 300 species, trees and
shrubs, mostly evergreen, and mostly in Central and South Amer-
ica. Some are cultivated for ornament, and some furnish honey,
medicine, etc.

WE xXerle. EOLvEveretc:

Ilex opaca, Ait. (Common, oR AMERICAN) HO_ty.

A well-known evergreen tree of medium size, usually a foot
or less in diameter ; but on the Tombigbee River in Sumter County
I have seen specimens about a foot and a half in diameter and 60
feet tall. Blooms in April.

Often planted for ornament, especially in the South. The
branches with red berries are much used locally for wreaths and
Christmas decorations, and also shipped north in large quantities.

244 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

(It has been nearly exterminated in this way in some of the north-
ern states.) The wood is white, hard, close-grained, and easy to
work, and is therefore useful for cabinet-making, interior finish,
woodenware, scroll-work, brush-handles, inlaying, carving, chess-
men, etc. The leaves, bark and berries have some medicinal prop-
erties, but are not officinal. The leaves are sometimes eaten by
cattle.

Grows in various places protected from fire, such as bluffs,
ravines, hammocks, and the drier parts of river and creek bottoms.
Usually in non-calcareous soils. Common nearly throughout the
state; least so in the Tennessee Valley, black belt, and Mobile
delta, and most in regions 6A and 10W, apparently.

Ilex Cassine, L. (J. Dahoon, Walt.)
(DaHoon Hotty.) CASSENA.

An evergreen shrub or small tree, blooming in April and bear-
ing red berries in winter. Ornamental, but economic properties
unknown.

Grows in non-alluvial swamps in the lower parts of the coastal
plain. Rare in Alabama. Dr. Mohr found it near Stockton and
Mobile, and I have seen it near Point Clear.

Ilex myrtifolia, Walt.* (YAUPON. )
(Map 21)

A handsome little evergreen tree or large shrub, with crooked
trunk, smoothish gray bark, small stiff pointed evergreen leaves,
and red (rarely yellow) berries. ‘The wood is similar to that of
I. opoca, but too little known and usually of too small dimensions
to be of any importance. The leafy branches with berries are used
to some extent for winter decorations, in the regions where it
grows. Grows in shallow ponds in the pine woods, in the lower

parts of the coastal plain.

12. Common throughout.
13. Occurs in all the counties, but less common.+

*This is treated by some authors as a variety of J. Cassine, on account
of the supposed occurrence of intermediate forms. But it has a different
range and habitat, and I have never seen any intermediate forms. It seems
just about as distinct a species as any we have (in genera containing two
or more).

+The little crooked tree shown on Plate 21 of Dr. Eugene A. Smith’s
report on the undergrounnd waters of Alabama (published by the State
Geological Survey in 1907) is probably of this species.

AQUIFOLIACEAE 245

'
SS

a

ape
rs ; u Ss
. ~~ ——_—
“<1
:
‘
2

,
Ke

pity
MAP - ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF
ILEX GLABRA GALLBERRY)

AND INLANO LIMIT OF 1. MYRTIFOLIA

4

Map 21. Approximate distribution of Ilex glabra and inland limit of
Tlex myrtifolia.

246 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Ilex vomitoria, Ait. (J. Cassine, Walt.)
Y(A)UPON, OR CASSENA.

A shrub or small tree, with stiff twigs and soft scalloped ever-
green leaves about an inch long, and red berries. It makes an ex-
cellent ornamental plant, and is also used for Christmas decora-
tions like some of the other evergreen species of J/ex. ‘The leaves
possess stimulant (and perhaps emetic) properties, and contain
more caffeine than any other North American plant, as far as
known, being nearly equal to tea leaves in that respect. (It is a
near relative of the mate or Paraguay tea, a favorite South Amer-
ican beverage, which has similar properties.) Its properties were
well known to the Indians, who made a beverage known as “black
drink” from it, and had more or less ceremony connected with the
use of it. It has been used like tea by white settlers along the
southern coast in the past, but that custom seems to be now prac-
tically obsolete, except on Knott’s Island, in Virginia and North
Carolina, where nearly every farmer has a patch of yaupon in his
yard, and puts up a barrel or so of it every year. The twigs are
usually gathered in spring, chopped up with the leaves, and dried
by artificial heat, so rapidly that they are scorched. When wanted
for use a handful or so is put in a tea-kettle, with water, left on
the stove indefinitely, and the decoction poured out when called
for.

A good deal has been written about this plant at various
times, the most accessible paper perhaps being that by Power and
Chesnut, cited in the bibliography.

It is almost confined to the coastal plain, in hammocks and
other places protected from fire, and in soils ranging from nearly
pure sand to nearly pure limestone (but probably free from earth-
worms or nearly so). Like several other “‘pyrophobic”’ plants with
fleshy fruits, it often finds its way to roadsides, etc., where the
seeds are dropped by birds, so that its natural range is not ac-
curately known. It is scattered rather sporadically, being abundant
in some places and absent from others which appear perfectly
suited to it.

6A. Along Big Sandy Creek, Tuscaloosa County. Pasture thickets
just north of Tuskegee.

6C. Along and near Autauga Creek, from Prattville to its mouth;
also in second-growth woods between Booth and Autaugaville.

AQUIFOLIACEAE 247

7. Greene County. Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Abundant along and near Pea River in Coffee County.

10W. Marengo and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw County.

12. Geneva County.

13. Covington, Escambia and Baldwin Counties.

15. Mobile County (Mohr). Abundant on Petit Bois Island (A. H.
Howell, oral communication), and near Fairhope and Orange Beach.

Ilex decidua, Walt.

A deciduous shrub or small tree, with leaning or crooked
trunk. Grows 7 inches in diameter and 25 feet tall on the Conecuh
River in Pike County, but usually considerably smaller. Blooms
in April, and has red berries, much like those of the evergreen
species. Sometimes sold by nurserymen for ornamental purposes.

Grows in alluvial bottoms and on calcareous uplands, mostly
in the coastal plain.

1B. In southwestern Madison County, on Limestone Creek in Lime-
stone County, and on Flint Creek in Morgan County. Near Falkville
(Mohr).

1B or 2A. On Mulberry Fork of Warrior River, Blount County
(Mohr).

2A. On Sipsey Fork, Winston County (Mohr).

2B. On Hurricane Creek, Tuscaloosa County.

3. Along Coosa River near Stemly, Talladega County.

5. Along Tallapoosa River above Tallassee, Elmore County.

6A. Tuscaloosa and Elmore Counties.

6C. Near Alabama River, Montgomery County.

7. Greene, Dallas and Montgomery Counties. In prairies, Hale
County. On Tombigbee River near Demopolis, Marengo County.

Along Conecuh River, Pike County.

11. Along Murder Creek near Evergreen.

12. Along Pea River near Geneva.

13. Along Murder Creek near Brewton.

14. Near Mt. Vernon and Stockton (Mohr).

Ilex longipes, Chapm.
A deciduous shrub with red berries. Not well known.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr, Wolf). Common around Albertville
(Harbison).

10W. Wilcox County (Buckley). Glarke County (Mohr).
Ilex ambigua (Mx.) Chapm. (J. Caroliniana (Walt.) Trel.)

A deciduous shrub. Grows in dry sandy and rocky places.
Blooms in April.
6B. Tuscaloosa and Autauga Counties.

13. On sandstone rocks a few miles west of Bay Minette, Baldwin
County. On sandy banks, Mobile County (Mohr).

248 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA
Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray. (Brack ALDER.)

A large deciduous shrub, with red berries.
Grows in wet woods and along small streams. Not com-
mon in the South.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr, Wolf). Jackson County (Harbison).
DeKalb and Cherokee Counties.

4. Clay County.

6A. Tuscaloosa County.

6B. Autauga County.

7 (?). Montgomery County (Mohr).

13 or 14. Stockton, Baldwin County (Mohr).

A variety (padifolia) has been identified in Cullman County by W.
Wolf.

A few other deciduous shrubby red-berried species have been reported
from various places in Alabama, but they are not well understood. Among
them are J. monticola, Gray, and its variety mollis, Britton (J. mollis, Gray),
reported by Dr. Mohr from regions 2A and 5, and J. Beadlei, Ashe, reported
by Mr. Harbison from Marshall County.

The next two species have evergreen leaves and bitter black
berries, and were put in a separate genus (Prinos) by Linnaeus,

but have long been included in /lex by most authors.

Ilex coriacea (Pursh) Chapm. (I. lucida, T. &. G.)

An evergreen shrub with shiny black berries. Resembles the
next, but is usually larger, sometimes ten or fifteen feet tall, and
has broader leaves with sharper teeth. Blooms in spring. Noth-
ing definite is known about its economic properties, but it prob-
ably yields honey, like the next.

Grows in wet woods and sour swamps; confined to the coas-
tal plain or nearly so.

5 (?). Lee County (Baker & Earle).

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Very common in Bear Swamp, Autauga County. (See Torreya
24:82. 1924.)

10E. Pike, Coffee and Dale Counties.

10W (2). Conecuh County.

12 (?). Geneva County.

13. Washington, Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia and Covington Counties.

AQUIFOLIACEAE 249

Ilex glabra (L.) Gray. (Prinos glaber, L.) GALLBERRY.*
(Map 21)

An evergreen shrub, a few feet tall, with small white flowers
in spring, and dull black bitter berries persisting through the win-
ter. Sold by nurserymen for planting along borders, etc. The
bushes are often tied together in small bundles to make brooms for
sweeping yards. The flowers are an important source of honey,
and the berries are sometimes used medicinally by country people.

Grows in sour sandy places, such as low pine lands and edges
of swamps, in the non-calcareous portions of the coastal plain.
Fire does not seem to hurt it much, for when burned it soon sends
up new shoots from the roots.

6B. Autauga County. Elmore County (Mohr).

6C. Near Tuskegee, Macon County.

7. Flat pine woods about a mile west of Fort Davis, Macon County.
8. Near Comer, Barbour County.

10E. Scattered throughout.

10W. Butler, Monroe and Clarke Counties.

11. Choctaw and Washington Counties.

12. Common throughout.

13. Abundant throughout.

15. Mobile and Baldwin Counties.

CELASTRACEAE. Srarr-TrEE FaMIty.

About 45 genera and 400 species, trees, shrubs and vines,
widely distributed. Some are ornamental and some medicinal.
EUONYMUS, Linnaeus. (Originally spelled Evonymus; perhaps
a misprint. )
Euonymus Americanus, L. (STRAWBERRY BusH.)
A slender shrub, with four-angled green stems, leaves ever-
green or nearly so, greenish flowers in April, and bright red warty
fruits with large red seeds in fall. Ornamental, if nothing else.
Grows in rich woods, ravines, hammocks, etc., where fire 1s

rare or impossible. Frequent, but not abundant.

1A. Along Cypress Creek near Florence.
2A. Blount and Cherokee Counties.
2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

*Tt is known exclusively by this name by millions of people in the
South, but just because it happens to be called “inkberry” in some northern
states (where it is far less abundant), one finds no mention of “gallberry”
in manuals of southern plants written in the North, nor even in some dic-
tionaries; and the latter name does not even appear in the catalogue part of
Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama, which was edited in Washington. (It does
appear, however, on page 821, which perhaps did not get the same editorial
attention as the rest.)

250 ECONOMIC. BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. DeKalb, Blount and Talladega Counties.

4. Calhoun and Coosa Counties.

5. Clay County (Mohr). Coosa, Randolph and Chilton Counties.
6A. Franklin, Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6C. House Bluff, Autauga County.

7 (2). Montgomery County (Mohr).

10E. Dale County.

10W (?). Clarke County (Mohr).

11. Choctaw, Washington and Conecuh Counties.

13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacq., a species which sometimes
grows larger, and is of some medicinal value, and occasionally cul-
tivated for ornament, Dr. Mohr was told was indigenous near Gur-
ley, Jackson County, but this has probably never been verified.
In 1922 I saw what I took to be this species on the north side of
Mussel Shoals in Lauderdale County, but it may have been
drowned out since by the. Wilson Dam. In the spring of 1928 I
found a few specimens on limestone on the north slope of War-
nock Mountain, in Blount County, and in rich woods near the
Alabama River north of Montgomery.

CELASTRUS, Linnaeus.( FALSE BITTERSWEET. WAXWORK.)
Celastrus scandens, IL.

A deciduous woody vine with reddish fruits, which burst open
in the fall and display a few large bright red seeds. Often gath-
ered or cultivated for ornament in the North, where it is com-
moner than with us. The bark, especially of the root, has medici-

nal and nutritive properties, but is not officinal.

1B. Ona small limestone knob near Cedar Plains, Morgan County.
2A. Reported from near Mentone on Lookout Mountain by Dr. Mohr.

SAPINDACEAE. Soapserry FAMILy.
About 125 genera and over 1,000 species, mostly trees and
shrubs of the Old World tropics. Several are ornamental, and a
few have edible fruit.

SAPINDUS, Linnaeus.
Sapindus marginatus, Willd. (Soapsperry. WuLp CHINa.*)

A small tree, said to be native in Florida, Texas, Mexico, ete.
Occasionally cultivated for ornament or shade, and escaped near
Gallion and Mobile, according to Dr. Mohr.

*Some writers on economic botany have confused this with the china-
berry (Melia Azedarach), probably on account of not finding the prevailing
southern name of that in the books. See remarks under that species, and
also under Jlex glabra.

SLAPHYLEACKAER 251

STAPHYLEACEAE. BLappErR-NuT FAMILY.

About 5 genera and 22 species, trees and shrubs, widely dis-
tributed. A few ornamental.

STAPHYLEA, Linnaeus.
Staphylea trifolia, [.. ( BLADDER-NUT. )

A shrub, or rarely a small tree, with opposite ternate deciduous
leaves, whitish flowers in April, and balloon-like pods in fall.
Sometimes cultivated for ornament in the North.

Grows on rich bluffs, river-banks, etc.; often with Ptelea
trifoliata, which it somewhat resembles.

1A. On Tennessee River near Florence (M. C. Wilson), and Ply-
mouth Rock Landing, Morgan County.

1B. Base of Sand Mountain, Jackson County (Harbison).

2B. Shale cliffs on left side of Warrior River at several places a few
miles above Tuscaloosa.

3. Limestone hill near Lagarde, Etowah County.

5. Along Coosa River, Chilton County.

7. Along Catoma Creek between W. Ry. of Ala. and L. & N. R. R,,
Montgomery County. Some of the largest specimens on record.* (Seen
there in 1906 and 1927.)

10W. In bottoms of Bassett’s Creek near Suggsville station (Allen
P. O.), Clarke County. (One small specimen seen, May 15, 1927, but
there must be others in the vicinity.)

ACERACEAE. Map te Famity.

Two or three genera and about 75 species, trees and shrubs,
mostly in the north temperate zone. Many are cultivated for or-
nament or shade, and some yield timber or sugar.

ACER, L. Tue Maptes.

Most of our maples fall into two groups, the hard or sugar
maples, with flowers appearing with the leaves, and the soft or
swamp maples, which bloom a month or two earlier, and have
fruit nearly grown by the time the leaves unfold. Some of the
first group are separated by rather obscure characters, and it is
not quite certain how many of them occur in Alabama.

HARD MAPLES

Acer Saccharum, Marsh. (A. saccharinum, Wang.)
(NorTHERN) SucAR MAapPLe.

A medium-sized tree, larger farther north, where it is the main
source of maple sugar. It is commonly cultivated for shade in

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:533. 1906.

252 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

some northern cities, and its wood is valuable for furniture, floor-
ing, etc.

It is not certain that we have the typical Acer Saccharum in
Alabama. It may be chiefly represented here by varieties (barba-
tum, glaucum, or Rugelit), and it is not very different from Acer
Floridanum, which I may have sometimes mistaken for it. It is
certainly not common here, anyway.

What I take to be this species grows in rich, especially cal-
careous, woods, in the northern half of the state. The following
localities have been noted.

1A. South side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County. (Locality doubtless
now obliterated by the Wilson Dam.)

1B. Jackson County. Near Huntsville (Mohr). Weeden Mountain,
Madison County. Limestone slopes, Morgan and Blount Counties. Frank-
lin County.

2A. (or B?). Shaly bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County.

2B. Walker and Fayette Counties.

3. Blount, St. Clair, Jefferson and Bibb Counties.

Dr. Mohr reported the var. barbatum from Clay, Pike and Butler Coun-
ties (the last probably intended for Choctaw, for Mt. Sterling is in Choc-
taw), but the last two Iccalities are well within the range of A. Floridanum,
and may represent that species.

Acer Floridanum (Chapm.) Pax. (FLorma) Sucar Mapte.

Usually a smaller tree than the preceding, but not differing
conspicuously. One or two varieties have been described. Blooms
in March and April. Its economic properties have not been in-
vestigated, but are probably similar to those of A. Saccharum.

Grows in rich, especially calcareous, woods, mostly in the
coastal plain. (The Coosa Valley records may represent A. Sac-
charum.)

3. St. Clair, Talladega, Jefferson and Shelby Counties. Bibb County
(Mohr).

6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Chilton Counties.

6C. Hale County.

7. Sumter, Dallas (Hatcher’s Bluff) Autauga (vicinity of House
Bluff) and Montgomery Counties.

10E. Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Sumter, Monroe and Butler Counties.

12. Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Along Conecuh River southeast of Brewton.

Acer leucoderme, Small. (4. Floridanuim acuminatum, Trel.)

A small tree, differing from our other sugar maples in having
a leaning or crooked trunk, bark smooth or nearly so, and leaves

ACERACEAE, 2p3

green but velvety beneath. Blooms in March and April. ‘Too
small and crooked to be useful.
Grows in rich woods and ravines and on bluffs, usually not

calcareous.
1B. Warnock Mountain, Blount County (Mohr). South of Blount
Springs.

2A. Near DeSoto Falls on Lookout Mountain. Marshall County (Har-
bison). Cullman County (Mohr, Wolf). On top of Warnock Mountain
and along Calvert Prong of Warrior River, Blount County.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties; frequent.

3. Limestone hill near Lagarde, Etowah County.

4. Coosa County.

5. Randolph, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Bibb County.

7. Near Hatcher’s Bluff, Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Dale and Covington Counties.

10W. Claiborne Bluff, Monroe County. “Mt. Sterling, Butler County.”
(Mohr). (Mt. Sterling is in Choctaw County, as stated on the preceding
page, but in both cases Dr. Mohr or his editor may have intended this for
the name of some place in Butler County.)

11. Choctaw, Washington and Clarke Counties.

SOFT MAPLES

Acer saccharinum, I,. (A. dasycarpum, Ehrh.)
WHITE, SILVER, OR Sort MaptLe.

A rather large and handsome tree. It is a favorite shade and
park tree in northern cities, less so in the South, but it seems to be
subject to disease, and therefore often looks shabby. About half
a dozen varieties have been developed in cultivation. The wood
is used some for furniture, boxes, broom handles, woodenware,
etc.

Grows on muddy banks of rivers and creeks subject to consid-
erable fluctuation.

1. On the Tennessee River and its larger tributaries, all the way across
the state, but probably never common along Mussel Shoals, where the water
could not fluctuate as much as in the sluggish reaches.

2B. Extends up the Warrior River to about ten miles above Tusca-
loosa.

3. Common along the Coosa River and a few large creeks.

5. Along the Coosa River, but not common, on account of the many
shoals, which limit the seasonal fluctuation of the water. Being gradually
drowned out by the building of more high dams.

6A. Along the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa Rivers.

6C. Common along the Tombigbee, Warrior, Alabama and Tallapoosa
Rivers.

7. On the Tombigbee, Warrior and Alabama Rivers.

8 (and probably 10E). Along the Chattahoochee River.

10W, 11. Along the Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers.

14. Near Mt. Vernon (Mohr).

254 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Acer rubrum, L. Rep MaApte, or “REDBUD.”

A medium-sized or sometimes a large tree, appropriately
named, for its flowers, young fruits, and autumn leaves are all
bright red. It blooms in February or March, and the fruits are
just about grown by the time the leaves unfold.

This is one of the least appreciated of our common trees. It
is planted for shade a good deal in the North, and less frequently
in the South, and one horticultural variety has been described.
The wood is said to be rather hard, close-grained, and _ easily
worked, and good for cabinet-making, gun-stocks, etc., ete., but it
is seldom sawn into lumber, because the trunk is usually irregu-
larly shaped, or branches too low down, and also because trees
large enough for saw timber are not very numerous in any one lo-
cality. It will probably be used more in the future, though, as
more desirable species become scarcer. I have seen the wood used
for charcoal in Chilten County, the bark is said to have been used
for dye and ink, and the flowers attract many bees and must there-
fore yield some honey or beeswax early in the spring.

Grows on shady slopes and in wet woods and various kinds
of swamps, and is most abundant on the poorer soils. I have seen
it in every region in the state, but it is rare in 1 A, 9 and 12, and

rn

uncommon in 7.

A few varieties or closely related species have been described,
such as Acer Drummondii, (or var. tomentosum) which seems to
be merely a robust larger-leaved form growing in muddy swamps,
and A. Carolinianum (or var. tridens), which seems to be the
other extreme, growing in sour sandy soils.

The next species is sometimes put in a different genus (/tulac,
or Negundo), on account of its compound leaves and certain other
differences, but when that is done it makes complications in no-
menclature, and it can very well be left in Acer without doing vio-
lence to the facts.

Acer Negundo, lL. (Negundo aceroides, Moench). Box ELDER.

A small to medium-sized tree, with leaning or crooked trunk,
and green twigs. Blooms in March.

Often cultivated for ornament or shade, both North and
South. Four horticultural varieties have been named. The wood

ct
on

ACERACEAE 25

is said to be useful for ox-yokes, woodenware, interior finish, pa-
per pulp, etc.

Grows in rich woods and on creek and river banks, especially
in calcareous and non-ferruginous regions. Widely distributed,
but nowhere abundant.

1B. Lauderdale, Madison (Mohr), Colbert, Lawrence (Mohr), Mor-
gan and Blount Counties.

2B. Fayette, Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Frequent throughout.

5. Cleburne and Elmore Counties.

6A. ‘Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6C. Montgomery County.

7. Frequent in most of the counties.

8. Marengo, Dallas, Wilcox and Barbour Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Wilcox, Clarke, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

AESCUI.ACEAE (or HIPPOCASTANACEAE).

Horsk-CHESTNUT FAMILY.

About 2 genera and 20 species, trees and shrubs, mostly in the
north temperate zone. Several are ornamental.

AESCULUS, L. THE BucKEYEs, Etc.

Trees or shrubs, with opposite palmately compound deciduous
leaves, rather showy flowers of various shapes and colors in elon-
gated clusters, and large brown seeds in roundish leathery pods.

Aesculus glabra, Willd. (On10) BUCKEYE.

A medium-sized tree with yellow flowers in May and prickly
pods much like those of the horse-chestnut (which is a native of
southeastern Europe, commonly cultivated in the northeastern
states), ripe in September. Occasionally cultivated for ornament.
The wood is light, soft, and difficult to split, and is said to be pre-
ferred to that of all other American trees for artificial limbs. The
bark has medicinal properties, and the seeds contain some in-
teresting drugs.

Grows in rich woods. Not common in Alabama.

1A. Ravines near Sheffield.

1B. Madison and Blount Counties (Mohr). Limestone slopes, Morgan
County.

2A. Winston County (Mohr).

7. Along small creek a few miles south of Eutaw, Greene County.

256 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Aesculus octandra, Marsh. (A. flava, Ait.) (YELLow ) BUCKEYE

A medium-sized tree with smooth gray bark, yellow flowers
in April, and smooth pods. Sometimes cultivated for ornament,
like the preceding. ‘The wood is soft, light, weak, and not very
durable, but it is used more or less for boxes, crates, excelsior, and
the unexposed parts of furniture, trunks, ete.

Grows in rich, especially calcareous, soils in the Tennessee
Valley. Dr. Mohr found a fine grove of it on Monte Sano in
Madison County, and I have seen it in Jackson and Marshall, and
perhaps Morgan.

Aesculus Pavia, L. (Rep) BUCKEYE.

A coarsely branched shrub, or rarely a small crooked tree with
trunk a few inches in diameter, showy clusters of red flowers in
March and April, and leaves and fruit much like those of A. oc-
taudra. ‘The leaves develop with the flowers, earlier in spring than
almost any other of our deciduous woody plants, except the elder,
and they drop early im the fall.

Offered for sale by nurserymen, for ornamental purposes.
The seeds and young shoots are poisonous to cattle, and have been
used for killing fish in streams.

Grows in rich or dry woods, and in clearings, where fire is
infrequent, nearly throughout the state. Probably more abundant
in Alabama than anywhere else. (It is possible that I have con-
fused one or two closely related species with it, for the alleged
difierences are based mostly on the flowers, and are therefore
visible only a few weeks in the year.)

1B. Madison County (Mohr). Jackson and Marshall Counties.

2B. Marion, Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties ; common.

3. Frequent throughout, or at least as far up as Etowah County.

5. Occasional throughout.

6A. ‘Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6B. Bibb County.

6C. Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Sumter, Greene, Marengo, Dallas (Cocks) and Montgomery Coun-
ties.

8, 9. Sumter and Marengo Counties.

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw and Washington Counties.

12. Geneva County.

13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties.

AESCULACEAE 25/.

Aesculus parviflora, Ait. (.4. macrostachya, Willd.)
(WHITE) BUCKEYE

(Fig. 62)

A shrub of more graceful habit than the preceding, usually
growing in colonies with about one stem to the square foot. It has
small white flowers in long erect spikes, and blooms from late May
in the southern part of the state to late July in the northern; but
only about one flower in 100 sets fruit.

This is a very ornamental: shrub, especially when in bloom,
and I have seen it in cultivation as far north as Long Island, New
York, but it seems to be rather difficult to transplant successfully
from its native haunts. The leaves are sometimes eaten by cattle.

Grows in rich woods, especially in calcareous and potassic
soils, well protected from fire. There is probably more of it in
Alabama than in all the rest of the world.

1B. Near Blount Springs and on Warnock Mountain.

2A. Blount and St. Clair Counties.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties, mostly near the War-
rior River.

3. Etowah, St. Clair, Blount, Jefferson and Talladega Counties.

5. Clay and Chilton Counties.

6B. Small dry valley near Joffre (formerly Kingston), Autauga
County.

6C. Ravines southeast of Booth and near House Bluff, Autauga
County. Discovered near the Chattahoochee River, probably near Fort
Mitchell, by Bartram in July, 1776(?)

7. Near Epes, Sumter County. About 16 miles southeast of Mont-
gomery (Miss Z. Rogers, May, 1927).

8. Dallas County.

10E. “Henry and Franklin Counties” (Mohr). (Probably meaning
near the old town of Franklin, Henry County).

10W. Butler, Wilcox, Monroe and Clarke Counties.

11. Near Suggsville, Clarke County.

Two or three other species of Aesculus, such as A. discolor Pursh, A.
austrina Small, and A. Georgiana Sarg., have been credited to Alabama, but
I have never identified them, and they probably do not differ much from
some of those above listed.

8 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

ed
i Se
re

444

Fic. 62. Aesculus parviflora on shale bluffs of Warrior
River near Tidewater (Lock 13), Tuscaloosa County. June 28,

1911.

RHAMNACEAE. BucKTHorN FAMILY

About 50 genera and 600 species, mostly trees and shrubs,

widely distributed. Several are ornamental or medicinal, and a

few have edible fruits.

RHAMNACEAE 259

RHAMNUS, L. (THE BuckrHorns).

Rhamnus Caroliniana, Walt. (INDIAN CHERRY).

A deciduous single-stemmed shrub or slender tree, with in-
conspicuous whitish flowers in May and small reddish berries in
fall. Sometimes cultivated for ornament.

Grows in moderately rich woods, especially in calcareous soils,

protected from fire.

1B. Limestone, Madison, Jackson, Franklin, Morgan and Blount Coun-
ties, mostly on or near limestone outcrops.

2B. On shaly bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County, and along
and near Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.

3. On limestone, Etowah, Talladega and Bibb Counties.

5. Shinbone Valley, Clay County (Mohr).

6A. Tuscaloosa County.

6C. Perry County.

7. Sumter, Greene, Hale, Perry and Autauga Counties. Dallas County
(Cocks).

10W. Butler, Wilcox and Monroe Counties.

11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

15. Shell mounds, Baldwin County (Mohr).

Rhamnus lanceolata, Walt.

A shrub, smaller than the preceding. Grows in dry calcareous

soils.

7. A few miles south of Newbern, Hale County. Near Epes, Sum-
ter County. (FE. A. Smith).

10W. On limestone west of Allenton, Wilcox County (perhaps the
same place where it was found by Buckley about the middle of the last cen-
tury). Butler County (Mohr).

SAGERETIA, Brongniart.

Sageretia minutiflora (Mx.) Trel. (Apparently no common
name)
A straggling or climbing shrub, several feet tall, with very
slender stems. Economic properties unknown.
15. Shores of Mobile Bay (Mohr).
BERCHEMIA, DeCandolle.

Berchemia scandens (Hill) Tel. (B. volubilis, DC.)
RatTan VINE

A stout woody vine, climbing trees by twining like a left-
handed screw, with smooth dark green bark, smooth deciduous
leaves, small greenish yellow flowers, and small elongated blackish
berries. Little is known of its economic properties, but it has

260 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

more solid wood than most other vines, and Prof. Stelle reported
the stems to have been used for binding bundles of shingles.

Grows mostly in river-bottoms and in calcareous soils in the
coastal plain, but found occasionally in the hill country. Seems to
require protection from fire, like nearly all other woody vines.

1B. Mostly on limestone or in bottoms, but sometimes on roadsides;
Jackson, Madison, Morgan and Franklin Counties.

3. Jefferson, Shelby, Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

5. Elmore and Tallapoosa Counties.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb, Perry and Elmore Counties.

6C. Greene, Perry, Dallas, Autauga and Montgomery Counties.
7. Sumter, Perry, Marengo, Dallas and Montgomery Counties.

8. Sumter, Wilcox, Lowndes and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Crenshaw, Pike and Barbour Counties.

10W. Choctaw, Clarke, Wilcox, Monroe and Butler Counties.
11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke, Monroe and Conecuh Counties.
12. Around a cave in southeastern corner of Covington County.

ZIZYPHUS, Gaertner.
Zizyphus vulgaris, Lam. JuyUBE

A medium-sized tree, native of the Mediterranean region; oc-
casionally cultivated for its fruit, which is edible and medicinal.
Escaped from cultivation around Mobile, according to Mohr.

CEANOTHUS, Linnaeus.

Ceanothus Americanus, L.
RED-SHANK. ReEp-root. (NEw JERSEY TEA).

A low bushy shrub with conspicuously veined deciduous
leaves, and small dense clusters of small white flowers in May
and June. A few varieties or related species, differing chiefly in
the size of the leaves, have been described, but there seem to be
all gradations between them. The largest-leaved forms are gener-
ally found on the better soils, and vice versa.

Occasionally cultivated for ornament, especially in Europe,
where many varieties and hybrids have been derived from it. The
roots, bark and leaves have some medicinal properties. The leaves,
although they contain no caffeine, were used as a substitute for
tea in the northern states during the Revolution, and to some ex-
tent in the South during the Civil war. A cinnamon dye can be
extracted from the plant, according to Porcher.

RHAMNACEAE 261

Grows in dry open woods, especially in sandy long-leaf pine
forests. On account of its small size, it does not take it long to
renew its growth after a fire. Widely distributed over the state.

1A. Lauderdale County (Mohr). Limestone and Colbert Counties.

1C. Smithers Mountain, Madison County, and Little Mountain, Mor-
gan and Lawrence Counties.

2A. Madison, Marshall, Cullman, DeKalb and Cherokee Counties.

2B. St. Clair, Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. DeKalb, St. Clair, Jefferson, Shelby and Talladega Counties.

4. Common on sunny slopes.

5. Frequent throughout.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Hale, Bibb and Chilton Counties.

6B. ‘Tuscaloosa, Autauga and Elmore Counties.

6C, 7. Greene County.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Crenshaw, Pike, Coffee, Dale and Henry Counties.

10W. On the Buhrstone Mountains, etc.; Choctaw, Monroe and But-
ler Counties.

11. Monroe County.

12. Covington County.

13. Clarke, Baldwin, Escambia, Covington, and Geneva Counties. Mo-
bile County (Mohr).

Ceanothus microphyllus, Mx. (Apparentiy no common name)

A small diffusely branched shrub, similar to the preceding,
except that the stems are yellowish, and the leaves only about a
quarter of an inch long, and evergreen. Economic properties un-
known.

Grows in dry sandy long-leaf pine forests, subject to frequent
fires, in the southern edge of the eastern half of the state. (Com-

moner in Florida. )

12. Covington, Geneva and Houston Counties.
13. Covington and Geneva Counties.

VITACEAE. Grape Famity.

About 12 genera and 500 species, mostly vines, in tropical
and temperate regions. Several have edible fruits of great eco-
nomic importance, and some are cultivated for ornament.

VITIS, Linnaeus. Tur Grapes, MUSCADINES, ETC.

Deciduous woody vine, climbing by tendrils, with incon-
spicuous greenish flowers in early summer, and more or less edible
berries in fall. The species are somewhat variable and puzzling,
and any one who likes to make fine distinctions might find a few
more in the state than are recognized here. The muscadine is
sometimes put in a different genus (Muscadinia).

262 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Vitis aestivalis, Mx. (Common ) WILD GRAPE.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament. The fruit is edible, but
more palatable when made into jelly than eaten raw. Some va-
rieties of cultivated grapes are said to have been derived from
this.

Grows in various places protected from fire, such as rock out-
crops, rich woods, bottoms, and roadsides. Pretty widely distrib-
uted.

1B. Jackson, Madison, Marshall and Franklin Counties.
1C. Lawrence County.

2A. On mountain slopes, DeKalb and St. Clair Counties.
2B. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Talladega County.

4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. (Doubtless occurs, but I never happened to make note of it.)
6A. Franklin County, and doubtless others.

oC. Greene County. House Bluff, Autauga County.
7. Sumter, Hale and Dallas Counties.

8. Wilcox County.

10E. Crenshaw, Coffee and Henry Counties.

10W. Wilcox County.

14. Upper part of the delta.

Vitis cinerea, Kngelm.

Differs from the common wild grape in having smaller leaves
which are more hairy on both sides, giving them an ashy look.

Dr. Mohr reported it from Hale and Mobile Counties, and I
have seen it on the upper Wetumpka Road in the outskirts of
Montgomery. Its range is mostly west of the Mississippi River,
and it may not be native in Alabama.

Vitis bicolor, LeConte.

Known in Alabama at present only from rocky places along
the Blue Ridge (region 4). Dr. Mohr reported it from Calhoun,
Talladega and Clay Counties, and I have seen what is probably the
same thing on Alpine Mountain, in Talladega County.

Vitis cordifolia, Mx. (Frost GRAPE.)

This has smoothish toothed leaves suggesting those of the
muscadine, and bunches of fruit like those of the common wild
grape, except that the berries are black and not very good to eat.
Blcoms in May. Occasionally cultivated for ornament.

VITACEAE 263

Grows mostly in dry woods and thickets; not common.

1B. Near Triana, Madison County, on limestone knob near Cedar
Plains, Morgan County, and on slopes of Warnock Mountain, Blount
County.

3. Limestone slopes near Valley Head, DeKalb County, and limestone
hill near Lagarde, Etowah County.

5. Clay County (Mohr). Lee County (Baker & Earle).

Vitis vulpina, L. (Vl. riparia, Mx.) (RIVER GRAPE. )

According to Dr. Mohr this is especially resistant to the in-
sect pest Phylloxera, and is therefore largely used in Europe as a
stock for grafting the wine grapes on.

Grows mostly on river banks.

7. Along the Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers, in Greene, Marengo and
Sumter Counties.
9. Sumter County.

10W. Sumter and Choctaw Counties. Lisbon, Clarke County (Mohr).
11. Choctaw Cceunty.

Vitis rotundifolia, Mx. (I. vulpina, T. & G.)
MuscaDINE, (or BULLACE.)

A well-known species, with large thick-skinned dark purple
berries, ripe in late summer, which are eaten by boys on foraging
expeditions, and also peddled in the towns and occasionally sold in
stores. The Scuppernong is a horticultural variety, commonly cul-
tivated in the South, with larger, paler and sweeter berries. The
flowers furnish honey.

Grows in various places protected from fire, such as dry
woods, thickets, hammocks, swamps, dunes, and _ roadsides.
Widely distributed cver the state, but commonest in the coastal
plain.

1A. Bluffs on south side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County.
2A. Cullman, Blount and Etowah Counties.

2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

Ste Clair County.

4. Near Ironaton Gap and Hollins.

5. Chambers County (and doubtless in all the others).
6A. Tuscaloosa and Elmore Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Autauga Counties.

6C. Greene, Autauga, Macon, and doubtless all the other counties.
7. Dallas and Montgomery Counties.

8. Wilcox County.

10E. Frequent throughout.

10W. Butler, Conecuh, Monroe and Choctaw Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Geneva County.

13. Washington and Mobile Counties.

15. Baldwin County.

264 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Vitis Baileyana, Munson, is credited to Alabama by Small, but without
definite locality. ‘Three other species of Vitis which are reported from
states east and west of us should be looked for in Alabama.

CISSUS, Linnaeus.

Cissus incisa (Nutt.) Desmoul. (Vitis incisa, Nutt.)

A slender vine with fleshy evergreen trifoliate leaves. Occa-
sionally cultivated for ornament.

Found by Dr. Mohr trailing over bushes in sand in the coast
strip, in Mobile and Baldwin Counties.

AMPELOPSIS, Michaux.

Deciduous vines, with small black or bluish uneatable berries.
Apparently no common names in general use.

Ampelopsis cordata, Mx. (Vitis indivisa, Willd.)

A vine with leaves much like those of the muscadine, and
small berries in flattish clusters. Sometimes cultivated for orna-
ment.

Grows mostly on alluvial banks and in limestone regions, but

sometimes a weed along roadsides.
1B. Near Russellville (Mohr).
2B. Along Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.
3. St. Clair and Jefferson Counties.
6A. Tuscaloosa County.
6C. Hale County. House Bluff, Autauga County.
7. Dallas (Mohr) and Marengo Counties.
8. Barton’s Bluff on Tombigbee River, Marengo County.
9. Sumter and Marengo Counties.
10W. Wilcox County. Near Claiborne (Mohr).
14 (2). Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Ampelopsis arborea (I,.) Rusby. (Cissus stans, Pers.; Vitis

bipinnata, 'T. & G.)

A vine with minutely warty bark, compound bluish-green
leaves, and shiny black berries. Occasionally cultivated for orna-
ment, to shade porches, etc.

Native along rivers, in low hammocks, calcareous thickets, etc.,
and sometimes a weed along roads and railroads, especially in and
near swamps. Mostly in the coastal plain.

1A. South side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County. (Probably now
drowned out by the Wilson Dam.)

1B. Madison, Limestone, Morgan and Lawrence Counties (mostly a
weed).

2B. Along Warrior River, Jefferson County.

VITACEAE 265

3. Cherokee and Talladega Counties.

6A. (?). Tuscaloosa County (E. A. Smith).

6C. Greene, Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Marengo, Dallas, Lowndes, Montgomery and Macon Counties.
8. Sumter(?), Marengo, Dallas and Wilcox Counties.
9. Sumter County.

10E. Crenshaw County.

10W. Marengo, Wilcox, Butler and Choctaw Counties.
11. Washington, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Geneva County.

13. Washington County.

13 or 14. Mobile County (Mohr).

14, 15. Baldwin County.

PARTHENOCISSUS, Planchon. (Psedera, Neck.; Quinaria,
Raf.)

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. (Ampelopsis quin-
quefolia, Mx.) VIRGINIA CREEPER.

A rather handsome vine, sometimes trailing on the ground, but
oftener clinging to rocks or trees by its peculiar disk-tipped ten-
drils. The stems are sometimes as much as two inches in diameter,
and are very porous. The plant is sometimes mistaken for poison
ivy, but is easily distinguished from that by the fact that its leaves
normally have five leaflets, which taper gradually to the base.
Flowers in June; berries ripe in fall, in flattish clusters, small,
bluish, not edible.

This is often cultivated for ornament, and will cover the side
of a brick or stone building in much the same manner as the Eng-
lish ivy. It is showy for awhile in fall, when the leaves turn red.
The bark and young shoots have some medicinal properties.

Widely distributed over the state, in rich or damp woods, pro-
tected from fire; sometimes showing weedy tendencies. Not yet
observed in regions 14 or 15, but it may grow in those neverthe-
less.

266 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

TILIACEAE. LINDEN FamI cy.

About 40 genera and 375 species, mostly trees, and mostly in
the tropics of the southern hemisphere. Some are cultivated for
ornament or shade, and some yield lumber, fiber, honey, ete.

TILIA, Linnaeus. Lin, LINDEN, BAsswoop.

Medium-sized to large trees, with obliquely heart-shaped
toothed deciduous leaves, fragrant white flowers in early summer,
and soft easily worked wood. This genus is widely distributed in
Europe, Asia and North America, but the number of species is at
present very uncertain. Several alleged distinct North American
species and varieties have been described in the last 25 years, but
they all have about the same wood, bark, flowers, fruit and habitat,
and the distinctions are based mostly on slight differences in the
size and pubescence of the leaves and the pubescence of the sum-
mer shoots, so that there is practically no way of identifying the
species in winter (as can be done with most of our other trees).
The cuts used to illustrate the genus in recent manuals are much
more alike than those of Crataegus, so much so indeed that they
could easily be taken for all one species.

Several species are cultivated for shade trees. The wood is
much like that of yellow poplar, and is used in other states for
boxes and crates, mill-work, woodenware and novelties, furniture
and fixtures, picture frames and molding, excelsior, piano keys,
baskets, bread-boards, ironing boards, and many other purposes.
The bark is pretty tough, and according to Wailes so much of it
was being used for ropes in Mississippi about the middle of last
century as to threaten the extermination of the trees. The flowers
are an important source of honey.

References: Brush 3, Bush, Sargent 2.

Dr. Mohr reported two species of Tilia from Alabama, but
the latest monographic treatments credit us with eight or ten. For
all practical purposes however, they may as well be treated as one
for the present, as they are not separated in my field notes.

Our lindens grow in rich woods, especially on limestone and
near rivers, where they are pretty well protected from fire. They
are nowhere abundant, and it is unusual to find more than one
tree to the acre. Unlike some genera which have given employ-

TILE ACKAR 267

ment to species-splitters (e.g., Crataegus), and several species sen-
sitive to fire (e.g., Sassafras, Prunus serotina), they have shown
hardly any weedy tendencies as yet. (If they ever do the taxo-
nomic difficulties will be increased. )

My records of their distribution in Alabama are as follows:

1A. Bluffs on south side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County.

1B. Jackson, Madison, Morgan and Franklin Counties. Blount County
(Mohr).

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). Chandler Mountain, St. Clair County.
West slope of Lookout Mountain near Valley Head.

2B. Fayette, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Etowah, Blount and Talladega Counties.

4. Mountains north of Pyriton, Clay County.

5. Cleburne, Clay, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6C. Hale and Autauga Counties.

7. Greene, Sumter, Marengo, Dallas, Autauga and Montgomery Coun-
ties.

8. Montgomery, Bullock and Russell Counties.

10K. Pike, Coffee, Dale and Geneva Counties.

10W. Frequent throughout.

11. Choctaw, Washington and Clarke Counties.

For the benefit of persons who may hereafter be able to dis-
tinguish the different forms of Tilia better than the present writer
can, the following fragmentary notes on the local distribution of
some of the supposed species and varieties is given. ‘They are
based mostly on Sargent’s Manual and Sudworth’s Check List, sup-
plemented by oral information given by Mr. W. W. Ashe during
a visit to Tuscaloosa in August, 1926, and the paper by B. F.

Bush, cited in the bibliography.

Tilia leucocarpa, Ashe (7. nuda, Sarg.). Mostly in the
central portions. Dallas County (Cocks). Near Greensboro and
Demopolis (Bush).

T. leucocarpa glaucescens (Sarg.) Bush. Bibb and Dallas
Counties.

T. australis, Small. Mostly in the Sand Mountain section.
Also in Coosa County (Ashe).

T. Floridana, Small. Jackson (an old specimen cited by
Bush).

T. Floridana Alabamensis, Ashe (7. F. oblongifolia,
Sarg.). Birmingham and northeastward (Ashe). Dallas County
(Cocks). Near Boligee and Greensboro (Bush).

T. neglecta, Spach. Lauderdale County (Ashe).

268 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

T. lata, Ashe. Lawrence and Winston Counties, especial-
ly the latter. (Not reported from any other state.)

T. heterophylla, Vent. Common in Coosa County (Ashe).
Dallas County (Cocks).

T. heterophylla Michauxii (Nutt.) Sarg. Lawrence, Win-
ston and Coosa Counties (Ashe). Dallas County (Cocks).

T. heterophylla amphiloba, Sarg. (7. apposita, Ashe?).
Near Valley Head, DeKalb County.

STERCULIACEAE.

About 50 genera and 750 species, mostly tropical. Some are
cultivated for ornament, and others are the source of chocolate
and other beverages.

FIRMIANA, Marsigli.

Firmiana platanifolia (L.f.) R. Br. (Sterculia platanifolia, ..f.)
JAPANESE OR CHINESE VARNISH TREE.

A medium-sized tree with smooth green bark, large palmately
lobed deciduous leaves, large clusters of small yellowish flowers,
and dry pods which have the peculiarity of opening long before the
seeds are ripe.

Commonly cultivated for ornament or shade in cities (espe-
cially Montgomery), and occasionally escaping to vacant lots
around Mobile, according to Mohr.

THEACEAE (or TERNSTROEMIACEAE).
CAMELLIA OR TEA FAMILY.

About 18 genera and 175 species, trees and shrubs, in the
warmer parts of the world. One species (with varieties) is the
source of tea, and several are ornamental.

GORDONIA, Ellis.
Gordonia Lasianthus, L. (Lostotiy, Rep, or TAN Bay.)

A stately evergreen tree when fully developed, with showy
white flowers (about the size of those of the white bay, Magnolia
glauca), in mid or late summer.

Sometimes planted for ornament, and it would doubtless be
used more for this purpose if it was better known. According to
Sargent the wood has been used for cabinet-making. In the 18th

THEACEAE 269

century Bartram found residents of Florida using its bark for
tanning.

This is rather rare in Alabama, and does not grow as large
here as it does farther east. It seems to be confined to the south-
western pine hills (region 13). Prof, Stelle wrote of it in 1888
as if it was common enough in Mobile County to be used for fuel,
but Dr. Mohr knew it only as a small tree six or eight inches in
diameter and 15 or 20 feet tall, in a swamp near Whistler. I have
seen still smaller specimens in the western part of Mobile County,
and near Geneva.

STEWARTIA, Linnaeus (also spelled Stuartia). (Apparently no

common name )

Tall deciduous shrubs, with large white flowers in late spring,
but no other striking characteristics, so that they attract little at-
tention when not in bloom, and are scarcely known except to bot-
anists. ‘They are not at all common, which is another reason why
they do not seem to have any common name.

Stewartia Malacodendron, L. (S$. Virginica, Cav.)

This blooms in May, and has flowers about 2% inches in
diameter, suggesting the flower clusters of the dogwood at a little
distance. It ought to be cultivated for ornament, if nothing else,
but I have found no record of its being so used. It is so rare and
showy that wherever it grows near a road it is liable to be de-
stroyed by vandals when in bloom. When not in bloom it is a
very ordinary-looking shrub, not easily identified.

Grows in dry or rich woods; rather rare.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr, Harbison, Wolf). Along Ejight-mile
Creek near St. Bernard.

2B. Along Hurricane Creek, Tuscaloosa County (Jelks Barksdale and
others, May, 1928).

4. Clay County.? (Seen only in summer, and identification a little
doubtful.)

6A. Found by Dr. Eugene A. Smith a few miles east of Tuscaloosa
about fifty years ago, but he was never able to locate it again. Seen from
train in southeastern portion of Bibb County, May 5 and 6, 1927.

6B or C. Near Bridge Creek about 2'%4 miles east of Booth, May 18,
1924. (See Torreya 24:32. 1924.)

10W. Creek bottoms near Greenville, June, 1906 (past blooming).

13 or 15. Mobile County (Mohr, 1879).

270 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Stewartia pentagyna, L,Her.

Ornamental, like the preceding, and offered for sale in some
nursery catalogues.

Grows on bluffs in the plateau region (2 A). Found in Cull-
man County by Mohr and Harbison, in Jackson County by Har-
bison, and in Marshall County by the writer (in 1906 only).

HYPERICACEAE. Sr. Joun’s-Worr Famity.
About 8 genera and 250 species, mostly shrubs and herbs.

ASCYRUM, Linnaeus. (St. AnprEW’s Cross. St. PEvTEerR’s Worv’.)

Small shrubs, with numerous small entire opposite leaves, and
yellow flowers with four narrow petals arranged like a letter X, or
St. Andrew’s cross. Economic properties unknown.

Ascyrum stans, Mx.

Evergreen. Blooms all summer. Grows in sandy bogs, etc.,
mostly in the coastal plain, and where less than 1% of the area

was cultivated in cotton in 1880.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). DeKalb, Marshall and St. Clair Coun-
ties.

4. Wet ravines in the mountains near Pyriton, Clay County.

6B. Chilton and Autauga Counties.

13. Washington, Clarke, Monroe and Baldwin Counties. Mobile and
Escambia Counties (Mohr).

Ascyrum hypericoides, L. (4. Cruav-Andreae, L.?, A. multi-
caule, Mx?)

Under this name may be included two or three species, but if
so they are hard to distinguish.
Grows in dry woods, in rather poor soil; not abundant.

1A. Lauderdale County (Mohr).

1B. Falkville, Morgan County (Mohr).

1C. Morgan County.

2A. Cullman and Marshall Counties.

2B(?). Tuscaloosa County (E. A. Smith).

4. Clay County (Mohr).

5. Rocky hills near Coosa River, Chilton County (a narrow-leaved
extreme).

6B. Bibb County.

12. Chalk Hill, near Healing Springs, Washington County.

13. Washington, Clarke, Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties

(Mohr).

HY PE RICACEAE 271

HYPERICUM, Linnaeus. (St. JoHn’s-Worts).

About half our species are shrubs, evergreen or nearly so,
and the rest herbs. All have simple opposite leaves, and yellow
flowers, in summer. Some of them are quite showy, but they
seem to be little known to persons other than botanists, at least in
the South, and perhaps have no bona-fide common name in this
country, the name given above having originated in Europe, where
there are several species of the same genus.

Hypericum prolificum, L.

Reported from rocky banks in Lauderdale County, presum-
ably in region 1 A, by Prof. M. C. Wilson.

Hypericum aureum, Bartram.

Evergreen or nearly so, two to six feet tall. Blooms mostly
in June. An ornamental shrub, sometimes cultivated in the North.

Grows mostly on bluffs of limestone and shale; rather abun-
dant in some places. (Probably commoner in Alabama than any-
where else. )

1A. Bluffs on both sides of the Tennessee River, near Florence and
Sheffield.

1B. On limestone slopes, Jackson, Madison, Morgan, Lawrence and
Franklin Counties.

2A. Pisgah gorge, Jackson County (Harbison).

2B. Bluffs along Warrior River a few miles above Tuscaloosa.

3. On limestone, Etowah and Bibb Counties.

5. Clay County (Mohr). Rocky bluffs along Coosa River in Chilton
County and Tallapoosa River in Elmore.

7. Chalk bluffs along Tombigbee River near Epes and Demopolis.

8. (Grows on the Georgia side of the Chattahoochee River near Eu-
faula, and presumably on the Alabama side also.)

Hypericum myrtifolium, Lam.

A small evergreen with rounded leaves covered with a fine
waxy powder which gives them a soapy feel. Flowers rather large
and showy.

Grows in shallow pine-barren ponds. (Commoner in Geor-
gia. )

13. Near Bay Minette and Oak, Baldwin County.
15. Dauphin Island, Mobile County (Mohr).

The next three or four species form a sort of linear series,
differing mainly in size of leaves, which might be correlated
merely with soil fertility; but their ranges and habitats are differ-
ent, and it is not certain that they intergrade, so that it is expe-
dient to treat them separately.

272 FEONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Hypericum fasciculatum, Lam.

A shrub of rather striking appearance, two to five feet tall,
much branched above the middle, with spongy reddish bark toward
the base, numerous needle-like evergreen leaves, and a profusion
of yellow flowers all summer.

Grows in or around pine-barren ponds and swamps, often
associated with the pond cypress, and having a somewhat similar

distribution.

10E. Extreme southern portions of Coffee and Henry Counties.

12. Washington, Covington, Geneva and Houston Counties; common.

13. Common nearly throughout.

A small sprig of a plant which could not be distinguished from this
was sent in by Dr. S. J. Lloyd from dry rocky hills near Walnut Creek
in Chilton County (region 5) in the summer of 1921. On Aug. 16, 1927,
Dr. Lloyd and the writer searched for it again, but without success.

Hypericum galioides, Lam.

An evergreen shrub, several feet tall.

The identity of this species is somewhat in doubt, but speci-
mens which seem to belong to it grow in springy places and river
shoals in the central part of the state.

2B. Formerly on Squaw Shoals in the Warrior River, at the western
corner of Jefferson County, but drowned out by a 63-foot dam in 1915. (It
may have also been on some of the other shoals between there and Tusca-
loosa, but those were obliterated in the same manner still earlier.) *

3. Abundant in a springy swamp at Tannehill, Tuscaloosa County,
some of the specimens ten feet tall. Also on shoals in Cahaba River a few
miles above Centerville.

Hypericum galioides, var. pallidum, Mohr.

Differs from the preceding in having the leaves a little larger
and paler. Grows on river and creek banks in the lower part of

the coastal plain.

10W. or 11 (?). Clarke County (Mohr).

12. Along Double Bridges Creek and Pea River near Geneva.
13. Near Calvert and Flomaton.

13 or 14. Stockton, Baldwin County (Mohr),

Hypericum aspalathoides, Willd.

A shrub about a foot high, with numerous short stiff narrow
evergreen leaves something like those of a dwarf spruce tree.

Grows in the poorest sand, either dry or damp.
13. Monroe County. Baldwin and Mobile Counties (Mohr).
15. Baldwin County.

*See Torreya 14:151. 1914.

HYPE RICACE AE PH,

Hypericum nudiflorum, Mx. (H. cistifolium, Lam.?)

A slender sparingly branched shrub, with leaves about the
size of those of H. aureum. Grows mostly on edges of sandy
swamps; rather rare.

13. Swamp of Three-mile Creek, Mobile County (Mohr).

Hypericum opacum, TJ. & G.

Another small weak comparatively unbranched shrub, smaller
in every way than H. nudiflorum, and differing from H. sphaero-
carpum in having fewer and larger leaves. Blooms in summer.

Grows in sandy bogs and low pine lands, in the southwestern
pine hills (region 13). Dr. Mohr reported it from Mobile and
Baldwin Counties, and I have seen it in Fscambia and Covington.

Hypericum sphaerocarpum, Mx.

A small erect shrub with a single stem, woody at the base,
herbaceous and branched above. Blooms in May and June.
Grows on limestone outcrops.

1B. Madison and Franklin Counties (Mohr). (These records may
pertain to the next species, which was described after Dr. Mohr’s death.)

7. Between Eutaw and Boligee, Greene County. Bald prairies near
Gallion, Hale County (Mohr).

11. Limestone glade near Suggsville, Clarke County.

Hypericum turgidum, Small. (FI.S. FE. U.S., 788. 1903)

Similar to the preceding, and perhaps not specifically distinct.

Grows on flattish outcrops of limestone, in the Tennessee Val-
ley (region 1 B). Collected by Ferdinand Rugel in 1843, some-
where between Huntsville and “Summerville” (doubtless meaning
Somerville), and later by W. M. Canby near Huntsville. Found
by the writer in September, 1927, at two places in Morgan County,
several miles apart (both perhaps near Rugel’s route), and in May,
1928, near the base of Warnock Mountain in Blount County.

274 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

THYMELEACEAE. MEzkErEuM Famity.

About 40 genera and 425 species, mostly shrubs with tough
bark, widely distributed. A few are cultivated for ornament.

DIRCA, Linnaeus.

Dirca palustris, L. LEATHERWOOD. (Also called MoosrE-woop
and Wrcopy in the North. )

A deciduous shrub a few feet tall, with very tough bark,
smooth entire leaves, and small yellow flowers in early spring.
Sometimes cultivated for ornament. The bark has some medicinal
properties.

Grows in rich woods, especially in virgin forests and near
streams, where it is well protected from fire. It has a rather pe-
culiar distribution, if it is all one species (and no variations seem
to have ever been suggested). It ranges northward to Canada,
and in New England is found mostly in cool, damp woods, but in
Georgia and Alabama it seems to be chiefly confined to the coastal
plain. Its known distribution in Alabama 1s as follows:

2A. Along West Fork of Sipsey Fork of Warrior River, near north-
ern edge of Winston County.

2B. Damp shady ravine near Lock 14, Tuscaloosa County.

10W. Rich woods west of Snow Hill, and along Pine Barren Creek
south of Ackerville, Wilcox County. Near Limestone Creek, a few miles
northeast of Claiborne, Monroe County. Between Dickenson and Grove
Hill, Clarke County.

11. Near Gilbertown, Souwilpa and Silas, Choctaw County. Bottoms
of Bassett’s Creek near Sugegsville sta. (Allen P. O:), Clarke County.

LYTHRACEAE. LoosestriFE FAMILy.

About 20 genera and 400 species, mostly in tropical America.
A few are ornamental, and one furnishes henna dye.

DECODON, J.F. Gmelin. (Apparently no genuine common name)
Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell. (The only North American
species. )

A weak short-lived deciduous shrub, with spongy bark near
the base, and long branches that bend over and take root near their
tips.

Grows in boggy or peaty swamps or shallow water. Rather
rare in Alabama, but commoner farther east.

ARALIACEAE 275

1B. In Limestone Creek and in a slough in the Tennessee River bot-
toms, Limestone County.

6A. Tuscalocsa and Bibb Counties (Mohr).
13. Near Andalusia (and just south of the state line near Florala).
15. Near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Lagerstroemia Indica, 1,., the crepe myrtle, a small tree commonly culti-
vated for ornament in both city and country, sometimes persists for years
after the house near which it was planted disappears, and may spread a
little by suckers, but it. is doubtful if it propagates itself spontaneously by
seed. Dr. Mohr reported it as established in Mobile County.

ARALIACEAE. GINSENG FAMILY.

About 50 genera and 500 species, mostly shrubs and herbs,
widely distributed. Mostly aromatic; some medicinal and some
ornamental.

ARALIA, Linnaeus. (SpPIKENARD, ANGELICA, SARSAPARILLA, etc.)

Mostly herbs. The following is the only shrubby one in the
United States:

Aralia spinosa, L. Prickty AsuH. (So called in the southern
states, but it is not the prickly ash of northern books.)

A woody plant of tropical aspect, with a prickly, usually sim-
ple erect stem, sometimes as much as six inches in diameter and
thirty feet tall, but usually not over one inch by six feet. Leaves
compound, over a foot long and wide. (A leaf brought to the
University from a young sprout in the near-by woods on May 6,
1921, was 6 feet 9'%4 inches long, with the lowest side branches
about 3 feet long, and had 250 leaflets.) Flowers small, numer-
ous, in large compound clusters, in midsummer. Fruit a small
blackish berry.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament. The bark is aromatic
and often used in domestic medicine, probably in much the same
way as the northern prickly ash (Xanthoxrylum; see page 225),
but it has not yet obtained recognition in the pharmacopoeias, or
even in the U. S. Dispensatory.

Grows in rich woods, hammocks, bluffs, bottoms, etc., where
it is pretty well protected from fire; in nearly all parts of the
state south of the Tennessee Valley.

2A. Madison, Marshall and DeKalb Counties. Cullman County
(Mohr).

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

276 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. Blount, St. Clair and Calhoun Counties.

4. Clay and Coosa Counties.

5. Chilton, Elmore and Chambers Counties.

6A. Lamar, Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Bibb, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Autauga and Montgomery Counties.

7. Dallas County.

8. Dallas, Montgomery, Crenshaw and Pike Counties.

10E. Crenshaw, Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Common practically throughout.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Covington and Geneva Counties.

13. Mobile, Baldwin (near Hurricane) and Covington Counties.

13 or 15. Hammocks on west side of Mobile Bay, a few miles below
Mobile, and bluff between Montrose and Volanta, Baldwin County.

CORNACEAE. CorneEt or Docwoop FamiIty.

About a dozen genera and 90 species, mostly trees and shrubs,
and mostly in the north temperate zone. Some are useful for
their wood, and several are cultivated for ornament.

CORNUS, L. Tue Docwoons, etc.

Deciduous shrubs or small trees, with small clustered white
flowers, followed by red, blue or white berries. The arborescent
species, with flower-heads surrounded by large white petal-like
bracts (including the first one listed below, one near the Pacific
coast, and one in Japan), are sometimes put into a separate genus,
Cynoxylon (from the Greek words for dog and wood).

Cornus florida, L. (ComMoN, oR FLowERING) Docwoop.
(Fig. 63)

A well-known small tree, with trunk usually leaning or
crooked, and not more than a foot in diameter and 25 feet tall.
The flowers appear with or a little before the leaves in March and
April (in February in central Florida), and the red berries remain
on the tree most of the winter.

Often cultivated for ornament, with two horticultural va-
rieties, one with drooping branches and one with pink bracts. The
bark, especially of the root, is bitter and tonic, and decoctions of
it have been used in the treatment of intermittent fevers, but it is
no longer officinal. ‘The wood is very hard when seasoned, and
takes a fine polish. It is one of the two woods most preferred in
this country for shuttles, and it is used more for that than for any
other purpose. (See Cuno in bibliography; also Kellogg.)

at :

site nT r

Fic. 63. Cornus florida, with trunk 10% inches in
diameter, in pine woods four or five miles west of Bay
Minette, Baldwin County. July 22, 1911.

Near cities the trees are damaged a good deal every spring
by vandals who tear off whole branches covered with flowers and
take them home to admire for a few hours, until they wilt. The
invention of automobiles has greatly facilitated this selfish practice,
which extends also to the honeysuckle (Azalea nudiflora and re-
lated species), which blooms at the same time and has much the
same distribution; and in recent years many protests against it
have appeared in the newspapers of Birmingham and many cities

278 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

in other states (for the dogwood ranges nearly throughout the
eastern United States), but apparently in vain. However, such
depredations on the dogwood are chiefly confined to the immediate
vicinity of highways, and do not seem to be perceptibly depleting
the supply. (It is still the commonest small tree in and around
New York City, where we may assume that it has been ravaged in
this way for over 100 years, or ever since people began to take
notice of the beauties of nature.) The shuttle-block industry is
making more serious inroads on the supply of dogwood, but that
utilizes only trees at least five inches in diameter, so that the
smaller ones are left to grow larger.

The dogwood grows mostly in dry woods, in the shade of
other trees, and avoids the richest and poorest soils. It can stand
a little more fire than some of our trees which are chiefly confined
to ravines and bluffs. It is common in every region in the state
except the Mobile delta, and is probably most abundant in 2 B, 3,
and 10 E.*

Cornus alternifolia, L.f.

A large shrub, or small tree, differing from all other dog-
woods in having alternate leaves, which are otherwise much like
those of the preceding species. The flowers are in loose clusters,
like most of the other shrubby species. April.

Grows in rich woods and creek bottoms, pretty well pro-
tected from fire. Rather rare. Mostly in the coastal plain with
us, though it ranges north to Canada. (Its general distribution
is much like that of Dirca palustris.)

5. Along Channahatchee Creek, Elmore County.
10E or W. Butler and Covington Counties.
10W. Wilcox, Monroe and Clarke Counties.

Cornus stricta, Lam. (I have not studied this sufficiently to
separate it from C. Amonum Mill. and one or two others, and
am therefore combining them for the present.)

*William Bartram about 150 years ago (Travels, p. 401) reported an
almost unbroken forest of dogwood nine or ten miles long on level ground
somewhere south of the black belt, but the locality for that, like many other
phenomena described by him, cannot now be identified.

CORNACEAE 279

A large shrub, sometimes almost a tree; similar in general
appearance to the preceding. Sometimes cultivated for ornament ;
and reputed to have some medicinal properties. Blooms mostly in
May.

Grows in swamps and other low places, especially if a little
calcareous.

1A or B. (Near?) Athens (Baker & Earle).

2A. Cullman and Blount Counties. (Mostly C. Amonwm?)

5. Clay County. Lee County (Baker & Earle).

6A. Tuscaloosa County.

7. Hale, Perry, Dallas and Autauga Counties. Montgomery County
(Mohr, C. Amonum).

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Wilcox and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw County.

13 or 14. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Cornus asperifolia, L.

A shrub similar to the preceding, except that the leaves are
rought with minute stiff hairs. (I may have sometimes confused
the two.) Grows in rather dry calcareous soils.

1B. (Near?) Russellville (Mohr).

7. Greene and Sumter Counties. Dallas County (Cocks).

NYSSA, Linnaeus. THE BLack aNp TuPELO GUMS.

Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh. (N. multiflora, Wang.) (Common)
Brack Gum. Often called PeppERmGE or TUPELO in the
North. )

A medium-sized deciduous tree with no striking characteris-
tics. Blooms mostly in April. Occasionally cultivated for orna-
ment, at least in the North, where it is scarcer than with us, and
therefore more appreciated. A “weeping” variety has been de-
veloped in cultivation. The wood has an interlaced grain which
makes it difficult to split and unsuitable for lumber, but good for
mauls, hubs, rollers, ox-yokes, etc. Hollow sections of the trunk
were formerly much used in the rural districts for bee-hives,
whence the old name for them, “bee-gums.”” The berries are bit-
ter and neither edible nor medicinal.

Grows mostly in dry woods, in quite a variety of soil, avoid-
ing the richest and poorest. It is commonest northward, but oc-
curs scattered among other trees, with a density of about one tree
to the acre, or perhaps less. When it grows in damp places it is
not always easy to distinguish from the next.

280 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

1A. Lauderdale, Colbert and Limestone Counties, not common.

1B. Madison, Limestone, Morgan and Lawrence Counties.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Common throughout.

2B. Frequent throughout.

3. Scattered throughout.

4. Common.

5. Clay, Chambers, Chilton, and probably all the other counties.

6A. Scattered throughout.

6B. Tuscaloosa, Hale, Bibb and Elmore Counties.

6C. Greene, Dallas and Autauga Counties.

7. Marengo, Dallas and Macon Counties.

9. Sumter and Wilcox Counties (approaching the next species ?).

10E. Scattered throughout.

10W. Choctaw, Clarke, Wilcox, Monroe and Butler Counties; rather
rare.

11. Choctaw and Clarke Counties.

13. Baldwin and Escambia Counties.

Nyssa biflora, Walt. (N. sylvatica biflora, Sarg.) Buack Gum.
(Fig. 64)

Usually a smaller and straighter tree than the preceding, with
trunk enlarged at the base somewhat in the manner of the cy-
presses, and narrower leaves; but there may be all graduations
between, especially toward the northern and western limits of this
species.

Its economic properties are similar to those of N. sylvatica,
At Prattville it is used for the disks between the saws of cotton
gins, and at Flomaton its wood together with several others has
been shaved into thin strips and made into baskets. In recent
years, since more desirable woods have become scarce, some of it
has been used for cross-ties.

Grows in sour swamps and ponds, usually where the water
covers the ground most of the year, but does not fluctuate more
than two or three feet with the seasons. Mostly in the coastal
plain, where it is often abundant in spots, unlike the preceding
species.

2A. Lawrence, Marshall, DeKalb and St. Clair Counties.

2B. Along Hurricane Creek near the “Plank Road,’ Tuscaloosa
County.

3. DeKalb (?), Cherokee and Talladega Counties.

4. Clay County? (Identification doubtful. )

6A. Common from Franklin County southeastward, mostly in creek
swamps.

6B. Chilton and Autauga Counties; common.

6C. Rather common throughout.

7. In sandy areas, Dallas, Lowndes and Macon Counties.

CORNACEAE 281

i
iz
#

Fic. 64. Nyssa biflora in shallow pond or swamp
on Sand Mountain, Lawrence County. April 19, 1922.

8. Crenshaw, Pike, Macon, Russell and Barbour Counties.

9. Sumter and Wilcox Counties (approaching N. sylvatica?)

10E. Common throughout.

10W. Frequent throughout.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Common throughout, in ponds and swamps.

13. Abundant throughout.

14. The most abundant tree near the lower end of the delta, where it
grows tall but somewhat crooked.

15. Baldwin County.

282 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Nyssa uniflora, Wang. (NV. aquatica L,., in part.) TupELo Gum.
(Fig. 65, Map 22

A large tree, with rather light wood, especially in the roots.
The trunk is often much enlarged at the base, like the cypresses.
The leaves and berries are much larger than those of the other
two species, and it can be distinguished from them in winter by
its coarser twigs. The wood of the trunk has an interlaced grain
and is difficult to season without warping, and for those reasons
was until recent years considered worthless for lumber, and was
used only in the form of logs for pumps and porch columns, thick
pieces for bowls (often carved out of living trees), veneers for
crates and packing boxes, and thin strips for baskets. So great
was the prejudice against it when it was first put on the lumber
market that it was called by fictitious names, such as “‘bay poplar”
and “Circassian walnut.’’ But the growing scarcity of other woods
has driven lumbermen to use this more and more, and when prop-
erly seasoned it is much like yellow poplar (Liriodendron), and 1s
adapted to many of the same purposes, such as furniture and inte-
rior finish. It is said to be excellent also for mill tramways and
the floors of warehouses and freight platforms, because it does not
splinter.

The chief use of the wood, however, is veneers used in boxes
and crates, for which it is unsurpassed. Smaller quantities go into
cigar boxes and musical instruments. The wood of the roots, on
account of its lightness, has been used for floats of nets, and has a
limited use in surgery. The flowers are an important source of
honey.

References: Holroyd.

This species grows in swamps and sloughs, generally where
the water varies in depth at different seasons from about one to
six feet,* but in Madison County its usual habitat seems to be
calcareous spring-fed swamps, which probably do not fluctuate
much. It commonly occurs in rather dense pure stands, with
hardly any undergrowth, though it may also be scattered along
the banks of creeks and rivers.

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37:121. 1910.

CORNACEAE 283

Fic. 65. Nyssa uniflora in slough of Tennessee River in Limestone
County opposite Decatur. March 14, 1913.

1B. Jackson, Madison, Limestone, Marshall and Colbert Counties.
Common in creeks and swamps in southern Madison County, and in the
Tennessee River bottoms opposite Decatur.

(2B. Seen in 1913 on bank of Warrior River above Squaw Shoals,
near the western corner of Jefferson County, where the water level fluctu-
ated about ten feet, but that locality was deStroyed in 1915 by the building
of the dam at Lock 17.)

3. On both sides of L. & N. R. R. a mile south of Longview, Shelby
County, in a sort of pond or sink. (I have seen this locality from the
train, in 1906 and 1927, and explored it on foot on Sept. 30, 1927.)

6A. Lamar, Fayette, Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Hale and Elmore Counties.

6C. Pickens, Hale, Dallas, Montgomery and Macon Counties; common.

7. Greene, Marengo, Dallas and Lowndes Counties.

10K. Near Choctawhatchee River, Geneva County.

10W. Near Coy, Wilcox County.

11. Conecuh County.

12. Washington and Houston Counties.

13. Along Conecuh River east of Brewton.

14. Fairly common in the lower part of the delta, less so in the upper.

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

NYSSA UNIFLORA

Map 22.

Known distribution of Nyssa uniflora.

CLETHRACHAE

bo
oO
on

CLETHRACEAE.

A small family, closely allied to the Ericaceae, consisting of
the following genus, with about 50 species:

CLETHRA, Linnaeus. (Wuutrr ALDER, SWEET PEPPER BusH)

Clethra alnifolia, L. (Including C. tomentosa, Lam., which does
not seem to differ much. )

A medium-sized erect shrub with toothed deciduous leaves
and erect spikes of fragrant creamy-white flowers in July and
August. Occasionally cultivated for ornament.

Grows mostly in damp sandy pine lands and on edges of
sour swamps, in the coastal plain; but two striking exceptions are
noted below (first two regions).

4. Along branches on south slope of the Blue Ridge a few miles from
Erin, Clay County.

5. Dry pine hills near Walnut Creek, Chilton County.

6. Reported from the central pine belt by Mohr, but locality not speci-
fied.

10E. Crenshaw, Coffee, Dale and Covington Counties.

12. Washington, Covington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Common throughout.

Clethra acuminata, Mx., a larger species, chiefly confined to the moun-
tains of North Carolina, is credited to Alabama by Small, but without cefi-
nite locality, and probably without sufficient evidence.

ERICACEAE. Heats Famity.

A large family, with about 60 genera and 1,200 species, con-
sisting almost entirely of shrubs. They are noted especially for
their preference for sour soils, which tends to keep them out of
limestone regions and weedy habitats, and also makes most of them
ditficult to cultivate.

AZALEA, L. THe HonreysuckLEs (commonly so called in the
South at least).

The nomenclature and classification of this genus are some-
what unsettled at present. The type species is Azalea Indica, a
showy shrub cultivated for ornament in the lower South. Our
species are all aeciduous, but were formerly put in Rhododendron,
a genus which in the restricted sense contains only evergreens.
Wilson and Rehder, in 1921 (see bibliography), treated them as a
subgenus Anthodendron under Rhodendron, and Mr. Ashe in the

286 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

same year dug up an old generic name of Japanese origin, Tsutsusi,
and transferred all our Azaleas to it.

Some of the species are quite variable, and just how many dis-
tinct forms should be recognized is a problem. Wilson and Rehder
credit seven species and subspecies to Alabama, but most of my
field work was done before their paper was published, so that it is
practically impossible to fit my notes to their treatment. Some of
the species bloom in spring and some in summer, and the greatest
perplexity 1s among the vernal species, which differ mostly in
color of flowers, and therefore cannot very well be identified when
not in bloom. The species are therefore treated here in the older
and broader sense, but future investigators may be able to subdi-
vide them better.

Azalea arborescens, Pursh.

A tall shrub with fragrant white flowers, in May and June.
Very ornamental, and said to be easy to cultivate.

Grows along small streams in the mountainous parts of the
State.

2A. Cullman and DeKalb Counties (Mohr). Pisgah gorge, Jackson
County (Harbison). Pointed out to me along Eight-mile Creek, Cullman
County, by W. Wolf in September, 1927.

4. Reported from an elevation of 2,200 feet in the Talladega Moun-
tains by Dr. Mohr; and I have seen it at several places on the mountains
north of Erin.

5 (?). I have seen what may be this species on the rocky banks of
Chestnut Creek in Chilton County, but only in winter, so that I could not
be sure of it.

Azalea viscosa, L. (Swamp HonerysuckLe) (Including the var.
glauca, and A. scrrulata, Small.)

A low shrub with sticky white flowers, in June. The leaves in
some forms are bright green, and in others glaucous, which has
given rise to varietal distinctions. Sometimes cultivated for or-
nament.

Grows mostly in sour swamps and bogs.*

4. Waterfall near Pulpit Rock (Mohr).

5. Lee County (Earle & Underwood).

6B. About two miles east of Booth, Autauga County.

13. Mobile County (Mohr). Baldwin and Covington Counties.

*It is reported from Cullman County by Mohr, but Wolf believes he
mistook A. canescens for it.

BRICACEAE 287

Azalea nudiflora, L. (Common HoNEySUCKLE) (Including pro-
visionally A. canescens Mx. and Rhododendron roseum and
R. Alabamense Rehder, which might be satisfactorily distin-
guished if one had sufficient opportunity to study them. )

A familiar shrub, very showy when covered with pinkish
flowers in March and April, just before the leaves unfold. The
flowers vary from white to red or even orange, but the pink form
is by far the most abundant. The white form (which has a large
yellow spot on the inside of the flower, on the upper side, and
blooms a little later) seems to prevail in the plateau region, and
it was referred by Dr. Mohr to var. alba Pursh, and by Rehder
made the type of a new species, Rhododendron Alabamense. The
size of the plant seems to depend largely on the frequency of fire.
In pine woods, which are burned every year or two, it may bloom
when knee-high, while in protected shady places it may grow six
feet tall, or more. It is gathered in large quantities by vandals
when in bloom, like the dogwood, and is said to be occasionally
cultivated for ornament.

Grows in dry or rich woods. Widely distributed over the
state, but inconspicuous when not in bloom, so that it is not easy to
map its range accurately. About two-thirds of my records for it
are dated April, so that my data on its distribution depend largely
on what places I happened to visit in that month, and it may be
just as common in some counties that I have visited only in sum-
mer, fall or winter. It is evidently rare or absent in calcareous
and alluvial regions, though, like most other members of this fam-

ily.

1A. Lauderdale and Limestone Counties.

1C. On and near Little Mountain, Colbert and Lawrence Counties.

2A. Lawrence, Winston, Marshall and Blount Counties (mostly the
white form). Cullman County (Wolf, R. Alabamense).

2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties. (Mostly the pink, but the
white form occurs in both counties too.)

3. Talladega, Shelby, Jefferson and Bibb Counties.

4. Calhoun, Clay and Coosa Counties.

5. Common throughout.

6A. Tuscaloosa, Hale, Bibb, Chilton, Autauga, and doubtless in all
the other counties. xia

6B. Tuscaloosa and Chilton Counties.

6C. Hale, Perry and Macon Counties.

8. Montgomery and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Pike and Covington Counties.

288 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

10W. Sumter and Choctaw Counties.
11. Choctaw County. =
13. Mobile (Mohr) and Covington Counties.

Azalea lutea, L.

Similar to the preceding, and blooms at the same time, but has
orange-colored flowers of slightly different structure. Occasion-
ally cultivated for ornament, and eagerly plucked by vandals if
seen blooming near a road. A rare species with us.

2A. Ravines on Sand Mountain, Jackson County (Harbison).

Azalea prunifolia, Small.

Differs from all our other Azaleas in having bright red flow-
ers, in midsummer.

Grows in rich woods and ravines, in the eastern division of
the southern red hills (region 10 E). Found by the writer in
southwestern Georgia in July, 1903, and by Dr. Eugene A. Smith
near Baker Hill, Barbour County, in the same month. (It must
be rare, for I walked through Baker Hill in July, 1919, without
seeing any of it.)

RHODODENDRON, L. THE RuHODODENDRONS.

Handsome evergreen shrubs, many of them cultivated for or-
nament, with numerous horticultural varie‘ies.

Rhododendron Catawbiense, Mx.

One of the most gorgeous of all American shrubs, with beau-
tiful clusters of large pink-purple flowers in early summer. Its
praises have been sung by nearly every nature-lover who has vis-
ited the southern mountains when it was in bloom. It has been
cultivated in Europe for over a hundred years, and many horticul-
tural varieties and hybrids have been derived from it.

Grows on rocky slopes and cliffs, especially near streams, in
the eastern part of the plateau region, over 1000 feet above sea-
level. Found by Mr. Harbison in Marshall County, and by Prof.
Wilson in Jackson. Common for several miles along Little River
in DeKalb and Cherokee Counties, particularly above DeSoto

Falls.

R. maximum \,., a similar but larger species, is credited to Alabama by
Small, but without definite locality. It may grow somewhere in the north-
eastern part of the state, for it is found not far away in Georgia.

ERICACEAE, 289
Rhododendron punctatum, Andr. = (or R.Cuthbertti, Small’).

Smaller in every way than the preceding, but quite ornamental,
and offered for sale by some nurserymen.
Grows in rocky ravines and on bluffs, protected from fire.

5. Tallapoosa County (Earle). Northwestern Coosa and eastern Chil-
ton Counties*, especially along Walnut Creek in the latter, though some of
it has recently been drowned out by back-water from the Mitchell Dam.

8 (2). Near Eufaula (Chapman).

Menziesia pilosa (Mx.) Pers. (M. globularis, Sal.) a deciduous shrub,
is credited to the mountains of Alabama by Small, but that is probably a
mistake, for it is chiefly confined to the mountains of North Carolina, and
is not certainly known even from Georgia, which has mountains twice as
high as any in Alabama.

KALMIA, L. Tue Lavrets (but not of ancient literature).

Kalmia latifolia, L. (Called Ivy in the South and Mountain
LAUREL in the North, and also sometimes Carico BusH and
SPOON-WOOD. )

(Fig. 66)

A large handsome evergreen shrub with clusters of pinkish
flowers in April and May. I have seen it with stems six inches
in diameter and twenty feet tall in Covington County, and it is
said to grow still larger in the mountains of North Carolina, where
it is sometimes classed as a tree. It is often cultivated for orna-
ment, and is hardy almost anywhere in the eastern United States.
The wood is hard and close-grained, but of too small dimensions
to be good for much but fuel, rustic furniture, tool-handles and
tobacco pipes.

This species has a well-established reputation for being poi-
sonous to cattle. It is usually the leaves that do the damage, but
a resident of Marion County once expressed the belief that it was
only the pods that were poisonous. It does not usually grow in
places frequented by cattle, though. The flowers furnish honey,
which, however, is suspected of having narcotic properties.

Grows on non-caleareous bluffs and cliffs, in hammocks,
ravines, etc., usually in shady places where there are no earth-
worms in the soil and fire is rare or impossible.

*See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:534. 1906.
7See Torreya, 15:30. Feb. 1915.

290) ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fic. 66. Near view of Kalmia latifolia in ravine on Lookout Moun-
tain, about three miles scutheast of Fort Payne, DeKalb County. Walter B.
Jones, May 31, 1926.

bo
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—

BRICACKAE

1A. Lauderdale and Colbert Counties.

1C. Colbert County.

2A., 2B. Frequent or common on recky bluffs and banks of streams.

3. Talladega, Shelby, Jefferson, Bibb and Tuscaloosa Counties.

4. Common on cliffs and in ravines.

5. Frequent, except perhaps in Chambers and Lee Counties.

6A. Scattered throughout.

6B. Hale, Bibb, Autauga and Elmore Counties. In this region its usual
habitat is in gullies among the high pine hills, where there is almost no
shade or humus, but practically perfect protection from fire.

6C. High hills near Prattville. Along Valley Creek about three miles
north of Selma.

10B. Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Choctaw, Clarke, Monroe and Butler Counties, mostly in the
Buhrstone mountains.

11. Choctaw and Monroe Counties.

12. Washington and Geneva Counties.

13. Washington, Mobile, Escambia and Covington Counties.

Kalmia hirsuta, \Valt. (Wicxky).

A low shrub, about a foot tall, with bristly stems, small ever-
green leaves, and pink-purple flowers in summer. Economic
properties unknown.

Grows in damp sandy pine lands. (Less common in Ala-
bama than in Georgia and Florida.)

13. Near Josephine, Baldwin County.
15. South of Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

LEUCOTHOE; D. Den:

Leucothoe axillaris (lam.) Don.

A low, almost unbranched shrub with curving stems, toothed
evergreen leaves, and waxy-white flowers (much like those of the
huckleberries ) in late spring. Shipped from Evergreen for winter
decorations, and would probably be cultivated for ornament if it
was better known. Believed to be poisonous to cattle.

Grows in wet woods in the lower parts of the coastal plain.

10E. Coffee and Covington Counties.

11. Murcer Creek swamp near Evergreen.

13. Spring-head about 5 miles west of Bay Minette. Along Franklin
Creek north of Grand Bay.

Leucothoe racemosa (IL.) Gray.

A slender deciduous shrub with small white flowers in slender
drooping clusters, in late spring or early summer.

292 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Grows in or around non-alluvial swamps, ponds, bays, etc., in
the coastal plain.

10W. Marengo and Butler Counties.

12. Cypress pond near Gordon, Houston County.

13. Around Lake Jackson near Florala. Mobile and Baldwin Counties
(Mohr).

15. Swamp near Point Clear, Baldwin Co.

L,. recurva (Buckl.) Gray, a mountain species related to the preceding,
was credited to Alabama by Dr. Gray (in his Synoptical Flora of North
America), but without definite locality.

PIERIS, D. Don.

Pieris nitida (Bartr.) B. & H. (Hurraw Busu [Ga.]. Horse-
wicky [Fla.] )

An evergreen shrub with numerous huckleberry-like pinkish
flowers in March and April. I have seen it ten feet tall in Chilton
County, but it is usually less than half that height. Its economic
properties are unknown, except that it is occasionally cultivated for
ornament.

Grows in sandy bogs and sour swamps ; almost confined to the
coastal plain.

5. Along Chestnut Creek east of Verbena, Chilton County.
6A. Chilton County.

6B. Autauga County; rather common.

10E. Dale County.

10W. Sumter County.

11. Washington County.

12. Washington, Covington and Houston Counties.

13. Frequent nearly throughout.

15. Common near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Pieris phillyreifolia (Hook.) DC.

Differs from all other Ericaceae in being usually a vine, and
from all other known vines in that it climbs cypress trees (Taxo-
dium imbricarium, never T. distichum) by creeping up under the
outer bark, often to a height of twenty or thirty feet, and sending
out branches every few feet, that look as if they were growing
right out of the tree.* More rarely a small shrub standing alone,
two or three feet tall. Evergreen. Blooms in February.

Grows mostly in cypress ponds. (Commoner in Georgia and
Florida. )

12. Ponds south of McRae, Covington County, and east of Gordon,
Houston County.
13. Around Lake Jackson, Covington County. Mobile County (Mohr).

*See Torreya 3:21-22. 1903. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 35:534. 1906.

ERICACEAE 293

CHOLISMA, Raf. (Originally misspelled Xolisma, doubt-
less because the Greek letter corresponding to Ch looks exactly like
our X. See Greene, Torreya 4:173-174. 1904.)

Cholisma ligustrina (L,.) Britton.( Andromeda ligustrina, Muhl.)

A deciduous shrub, blooming in late spring. It varies in size
with soil conditions, etc., and some of the dwarf forms have been
given varietal names. Sometimes cultivated for ornament.

Grows in wet woods, edges of swamps, etc.

2A. Cullman County

4. Clay County.

5. Clay County. Lee County (Earle & Underwood).
6A. Franklin and Tuscaloosa Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

6C (?). Montgomery County (Mohr).

13. Near Oak, Baldwin County (the dwarf form).

OXYDENDRUM, DeCandolle. (Only one species.)

Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. SouRWOoD.

A slender tree, in favorable situations becoming a foot in
diameter and forty or fifty feet tall, with pointed deciduous leaves
and small clustered huckleberry-like flowers in June. The flowers
have their mouths pointing downward, but the pods (like nearly
all capsular fruits) are erect, so that the seeds do not all drop as
soon as the pods open, but are scattered gradually by the wind.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament. The wood is heavier
than water when green, and hard, close-grained, and susceptible of
polish, but there is not enough of it in large dimensions to be of
much economic importance. It might possibly be good for shuttles.
The young shoots are very straight, and are occasionally used by
boys for arrows. ‘The leaves and bark are medicinal, but not offi-
cinal. The flowers furnish honey.

Grows in dry woods, hamrnocks, bluffs, creek-bottoms, etc.,
and seems to avoid the richest, poorest and wettest soils, and too
frequent fires. Its distribution corresponds approximately with
those parts of the state where more than 1% and less than 10%
of the area was cultivated in cotton in 1880.

1A. Lauderdale and Colbert Counties.
1B. Limestone slopes east of Guntersville.
1C. Colbert County.

2A. Scattered throughout.

2B. Frequent.

294 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

3. On chert ridges, etc. DeKalb, Blount, Jefferson and Bibb Counties.
4. Common.

5. Scattered. Randolph, Tallapoosa, Elmore, Chilton, and probably all
the other counties.

6A. Franklin County to Chilton.

6B. Tuscaloosa County to Autauga.

6C. Greene, Dallas, Autauga and Elmore Counties.

7. Near Sardis, Dallas County.

8. Pike, Barbour and Russell Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Frequent throughout.

10W. Choctaw, Clarke, Wilcox, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke, Monroe and Conecuh Counties.

12. Washington and Geneva Counties; rare.

13. Mobile, Baldwin and Covington Counties; rare.

VACCINIACEAE. HuvcCKLEBERRY FAMILY.

This family, with about 25 genera and 325 species, mostly
shrubs, was formerly combined with the Ericaceae, which
it resembles in flower structure and general appearance, and also
in having a partiality for acid soils; but it is now separated on the
technical character of having the ovary inferior, i. e., united with
the calyx nearly to the top. The fruit is a berry, edible in most
species; and the leaves do not seem to be poisonous, as those of
many Ericaceae are.

GAYLUSSACIA, Humboldt, Bonpland & Kunth. THr HucKLEBERRIES.

Gaylussacia dumosa (Andr.) T. & G. (GOPHER-BERRY ).

A low evergreen almost unbranched shrub, a foot or less in
height, with white bell-shaped flowers in April and May and black
berries in summer and fall. The berries are edible, but not very
sweet or abundant.

Grows in dry open woods with siliceous soil, especially in
long-leaf pine regions.

2A. Cullman and DeKalb Counties.

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. DeKalb, Etowah and Talladega Counties, mostly on chert ridges.
4. Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Cleburne, Tallapoosa, Elmore and Chilton Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa, Hale, Bibb, Chilton, Autauga and Elmore Counties.
6C. Autauga County.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Pike County.

10W. Choctaw and Monroe Counties.

12. Washington and Covington Counties. ;
13. Mobile, Clarke, Baldwin, Covington and Geneva Counties.

VACCINIACEAE 295

Gaylussacia hirtella (Ait.f.) Klotzsch. (Including G. Mosieri,
Small)

Similar to the preceding, but usually taller, with bristly stems
and berries. Fruit ripe in June and July, insipid.

Grows mostly in sandy bogs, in the lower parts of the coastal
plain.

12. Washington and Geneva Counties.
13. South of Andalusia, Covington County. Swamp of Franklin
Creek, north of Grand Bay, Mobile County.

Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. & G. HUCKLEBERRY.

A slender deciduous shrub often several feet tall, with incon-
spicuous greenish flowers and fine bluish berries, very good to eat.
It runs into several varieties, which seem to differ chiefly in size,
and are hardly worth enumerating. Blooms in April, fruit ripe
in June.

Grows in low pine lands, sandy bogs, ete. Confined to the
coastal plain, or nearly so.

5 (?). (Near?) Auburn (Earle & Underwood).

6A. Chilton County.

12. Washington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Mobile County (Mohr). Baldwin and Geneva Counties.

BATODENDRON, Nuttall. (Tree HucKLeperrtés).
Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. (Vaccinium arboreum,
Marsh.) SPARKLEBERRY, Or WINTER HUCKLEBERRY

A large shrub or small tree, evergreen or nearly so, with white
flowers in May and rather dry and gritty black berries hanging on
most of the winter. Dr. Mohr found specimens as much as ten
inches in diameter and thirty feet tall.

In its stems, bark and wood this species resembles Kalmia
latifolia, and its wood can probably be used for the same purposes.
The leafy twigs are sometimes shipped north for decorative pur-
poses. The berries can be eaten, but they are hardly worth the
trouble of picking.

Inhabits dry woods, rocky bluffs, cliffs, mountain summits,
sandy hammocks, and other places protected from fire and floods,
in nearly all parts of the state where less than 10% of the area
was cultivated in cotton in 1880. It will grow in richer soils than
most of the Ericaceae, but seems to avoid distinctly calcareous
soils.

296 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

1A. Lauderdale and Colbert Counties.

1B. Madison, Limestone and Colbert Counties.

2A. Common throughout.

2B. Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Talladega, Jefferson and Bibb Counties.

4. Common nearly throughout.

5. Cleburne, Tallapoosa, Elmore and Chilton Counties.

6A. Franklin County to Elmore County.

6B. Common.

6C. Greene and Autauga Counties.

7. On loamy hills, Greene County; second bottoms south of Selma,
Dallas County; near Catoma Creek, Montgomery County.

8. Pike County.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Frequent throughout.

10W. Choctaw, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington and Clarke Counties.

12. Washington, Geneva and Houston Counties.

13. Mobile, Baldwin, Escambia and Covington Counties.

15. Baldwin County.

POLYCODIUM, Rafinesque. GooskBERRIES (so called in the
South, not in the North).

Deciduous shrubs, with small bell-shaped white or whitish
flowers, and berries that in most forms are rather bitter and
hardly considered edible, though some of them make pretty good
jelly. Originally this genus included but one species, the first
named below (Vaccinium stamineum, 1,.), but in the last few de-
cades several new forms have been described which are difficult
to distinguish, and the number of species which should be recog-
nized is uncertain.

Polycodium stamineum (I,.) Greene.
(DEERBERRY. SQUAW HUCKLEBERRY).

Usually about three feet tall, with pretty little cream-colored
flowers in April and greenish berries in summer. Sometimes cul-
tivated for ornament.

Grows in dry and moderately rich woods. One or two other
forms may have been confused with it in my notes.

2A. Lawrence and Winston Counties.

2B. Near Lock 14, Tuscaloosa County.

4. Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Near Lafayette, Chambers County.

6A. ‘Tuscaloosa and Chilton Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Hale Counties, rather rare.

9. Sumter County.
10W. Choctaw County.

VACCINIACEAE 297

Polycodium melanocarpum (Mohr) Small. (Including two
varieties described by Mohr, one of which is treated as a
species by Small.)

According to Dr. Mohr this grows from two to four feet tall
and has shiny black berries which ripen earlier than those of P.
stamineum and are very good to eat.

1A. Lauderdale County (Mohr).

2A. DeKalb County. (Var. sericeum, Mohr).

3. St. Clair County. (Var. sericewm, Mohr).
5. Lee County (Baker & Earle). (Var. candicans, Mohr).

VACCINIUM, Linnaeus. BLuBerrtiks, etc. (Generally called
HUCKLEBERRIES in the South.)

All shrubs, and all but one of ours deciduous. They bloom
in spring, about the time the leaves unfold, and ripen their fruit in
early summer. All or nearly all have edible berries, of some com-
mercial importance, and some are cultivated for that reason, or for
ornament. They grow mostly in siliceous soils, and are common
throughout the state, except in the Tennessee Valley and the black
belt.

Our species of this genus are not easy to distinguish without
having both flowers and fruit, and that condition is not easily ful-
filled when one is trying to cover a whole state in a few years.
For that reason I can add very little to what is said about them in
Mohr’s Plant Life of Alabama, where ten species and varieties
of Vaccinium proper are enumerated. One or two more are cred-
ited to Alabama in Small’s Flora of the Southeastern United
States, but four or five is about all that I have distinguished.

Vaccinium Myrsinites, Lam. (JV. nitidum, Andr.?) (Including
the var. glaucum, which seems to differ only in having the
foliage glaucous, a variation which occurs in many _ other
plants, and does not seem to signify much.)

A low much-branched shrub, usually about a foot tall, with
small evergreen leaves, blooming in March and April. The berries
are few and small, and not very sweet.

Grows in dry sunny siliceous soils, especially in long-leaf pine
forests.

298 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

5. Clay County (Mohr). Bald Knob, Elmore County. Lee County
(Baker & Earle).

6A. Chilton County.

6B. Autauga County.

9. Sumter County.

10W. Mostly on the Buhrstone mountains. Choctaw County. Clarke
County (Mohr). Monroe County.

12. Iron Mountain near Healing Springs, Washington County.

13. Mobile County (Mohr). Baldwin County.

15. Inner edge of dunes near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Vaccinium vacillans, Kalm.

A low much-branched deciduous shrub, about a foot tall.
Grows in dry non-calcareous woods, with few or no earth-
worms in the soil, and pretty good protection from fire. Berries

abundant and good.

1C. Colbert County.

2A. Lawrence, Winston, Cullman, Blount and DeKalb Counties.
2B. Dry bluffs near Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.

3. DeKalb and Talladega Counties.

4. Rather common on ridges.

5. Cleburne County. Lee County (Baker & Earle).

6C or 7. House Bluff, Autauga County.

10W. Monroe County.

Vaccinium Elliottii, Chapm.

A deciduous much-branched shrub several feet tall, with small
leaves. (I may have confused one or two other species with it.)
Berries small and not very abundant.

Grows mostly in dry woods protected from fire, and on creek

banks.
2A. Cullman and DeKalb Counties.
2B. Fayette and Tuscaloosa Counties.
4. Rich damp ravine, Clay County.
5. Chilton and Coosa Counties. Lee County (Baker & Earle).
6A. Pickens, Tuscaloosa and Hale Counties.
6B. Bibb and Autauga Counties.
6C. Pickens and Autauga Counties.
10W. Choctaw County. Near Claiborne (Mohr).
12. Chalk Hill, near Healing Springs, Washington County.
13. Escambia and Mobile Counties.
15. Baldwin County.

Vaccinium corymbosum, L,. (With several varieties or related
species. ) (HicH-pusH HucKLEBERRY )

A tall shrub, with larger leaves than these previously men-
tioned, and excellent berries.

VACCINIACEAE 299

Grows in wet woods and sour swamps. Not as common in
Alabama as in some states farther north and east.

2A. Winston, Cullman and DeKalb Counties (Mohr; including l’. pal-
lidum).

4. Clay County.

5. Lee County (Baker & Earle).

6A. Marion County.

6B. Autauga County.

6C. Prattville (Mohr; V. fuscatum).

13 or 14. Near David’s Lake, Mobile County (Mohr; var. amoenum).

15. Near Zundel’s, Baldwin County (Mohr, V. fuscatwm).

EBENACEAE. Esony Famity.

About 7 genera and 275 species, trees and shrubs, mostly
tropical.

DIOSPYROS, Linnaeus.

This genus includes over 100 species, mostly Asiatic, some
yielding fruit and some valuable wood. The ebony is one of them.

Diospyros Virginiana, L.. PERSIMMON.

A medium-sized deciduous tree, too well known to every
southerner to require any description. ‘The wood is very heavy,
hard, strong and compact, and is one of the best for shuttles. It
is said to be also used for boot and shoe findings and interior fin-
ish. (See Cuno and Fletcher in bibliography.) The green fruit
is very astringent, and dyes fabrics black. Decoctions of it and
of the bark have been used medicinally. The ripe fruit is sweet
and edible, and seems to run into several varieties, differing in
shape, size, number of seeds, time of ripening, etc. Some are al-
most seedless.

There is a widespread belief or tradition that the persimmon
fruit does not lose its astringency until after frost; and that may
be true toward its northern limits, and of some individual trees in
all parts of its range, but I have seen ripe ones in Autauga County
the last week in August, and they can probably be found almost
anywhere in the state by the middle of September. ‘The fruit
could probably be improved by cultivation, but that does not seem
to have been undertaken yet.

The persimmon is widely distributed over the state, in almost
every kind of soil, but it is mostly a weed in old fields and along

300 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

roadsides, and it must have been very scarce before the country
was settled. It appears as if indigenous in a few places, though,
particularly on limestone in the Tennessee Valley, and on the
banks of the Warrior River in the northern part of Jefferson
County. Trees of this species are usually solitary, and located in
places pretty well protected from fire; but, as in the case of the
sassafras, one often finds shrubby immature specimens growing
abundantly in old fields, and also in pine lands that are burned
over occasionally.

Although the persimmon is very common, it makes up a very
small fraction of the total stand of timber in the state. (It seems
to be less abundant in Alabama than in Georgia, though that
would be hard to prove statistically.) It is apparently rare in re-
gions 1A, 2A, 14 and 15, and commonest in 3, 6A and 10W.

SAPOTACEAE. Sapopitia FAMILy.

Includes about 50 genera and 425 species of woody plants,
mostly tropical, some of them important for fruit or other prod-
ucts. Represented in the United States only by the following
genus, and one or two others which do not range north of Florida.

BUMELIA, Swartz. (Seems to have no common name in
general use.)

Bumelia lanuginosa (Mx.) Pers.

A small deciduous tree, with leaning or crooked trunk less
than a foot in diameter, and rather hard and tough wood. Flowers
and fruit not often seen. According to Prof. Sargent, the tree,
when wounded, exudes a sticky gum, and the wood is well suited
for cabinet-making.

Grows in sandy hammocks and other dry places not subject to
fire.

1B. (Near?) Russellville (Mohr; perhaps the next species?).

5. Cliffs on Coosa River about seven miles above Wetumpka, EI-
more County.

7. Along Catoma Creek, Montgomery County. Dallas County (Cocks).
Near House Bluff, Autauga County.

10E. In the “pocosin,’ Pike County. Also in Coffee County.
13 (7). Mobile County (Mohr).

SAPOTACEAE 301

Bumelia lycioides (L.) Gaert.

A small tree, but taller and straighter than the preceding,
partly evergreen, and peculiar in the fact that the leaves do not
change color in the fall, but remain green until they drop off at
intervals through the winter. This is one of the few Alabama
trees which seems not to be known or used by the natives.

Grows on calcareous and shaly slopes, river-banks, etc.

1B. Jackson, Madison and Morgan Counties, on limestone.

2B. Shaly bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County; rare.
Bluffs on Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.

3. Etowah, Blount, St. Clair and Jefferson Counties.

7. Dallas and Marengo Counties.

10E. Rich woods east of Ozark, Dale County.

10W. Wilcox County (Buckley).

11. Bank of Murder Creek, Conecuh County.

12. Limestone outcrop near Gordon, Houston County.

SYMPLOCACEAE. (Comprises only the following genus).
SYMPLOCOS, Linnaeus.

A large genus of trees and shrubs, mostly in eastern Asia and
the tropics. Only the following occurs in North America.

Symplocos tinctoria (L) L’Her.
SWEET-LEAF, SWEET Bay. (Horse-SuGaAr).

A large shrub or small tree much like a bay in appearance,
evergreen or nearly so, with yellowish flowers in March and April.
In Chilton County I have seen a tree about nine inches in diameter
and forty feet tall, but it 1s usually a shrub only a few feet tall.
It is ornamental and easily cultivated, but apparently seldom if ever
handled by American nurserymen. According to Sargent, it was
formerly cultivated in England. F. A. Michaux said of it about
100 years ago that its wood was totally useless. The leaves have a
sweet taste, and are relished by grazing animals. They and the
bark yield a yellow dye.

This species inhabits rich woods, bluffs, etc., pretty well pro-
tected from fire, mostly in those parts of the state where less than
15% of the area was cultivated in cotton in 1880.

1B. Falkville, Morgan County (Mohr).

2A. Occasional throughout.

2B. Fayette, Walker, Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.
3. Along Cahaba River above Pratt’s Ferry, Bibb County.
4. Clay and Coosa Counties.

5. Clay, Coosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

302 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

6A. Marion County to Elmore.

6C. Pickens and Autauga Counties.

7. Dallas County (Cocks).

9. Sumter County.

10K. Pike, Coffee and Dale Counties.

10W. Choctaw, Marengo and Butler Counties.

11. Near Evergreen, Conecuh County.

13. Mobile, Clarke, Baldwin, Escambia and Covington Counties.

STYRACACEAE. Srorax FAMILy.

About six genera and 115 species, trees and shrubs, widely
distributed in tropical and warm-temperate regions.

STYRAX, Linnaeus. (Apparently no common name in
these parts)

Shrubs, with roughish leaves, rather handsome white flowers,
and small dry berry-like fruits. Some of them are occasionally-
cultivated for ornament elsewhere, but the people in this part of
the world seem to have no name or use for them.

Styrax grandifolia, Ait.

A large shrub, sometimes almost a tree, with broad leaves
much like those of Halesia diptera (see below). When not in
fruit it might easily be mistaken for a young specimen of that
tree. Blooms in April and May.

Grows mostly in the coastal plain, and in dry places pro-

tected from fire.

2A. Cullman County, near creeks.

2B. Bluffs along Warrior River near Locks 14 and 16, Tuscaloosa
County.

5(?). (Near?) Auburn (Baker & Earle).

6B. Near Duncanville, Tuscaloosa County (W. W. Ashe, Aug. 1926).

6C. Ravines southwest of Booth, Autauga County.

10W. Mountains near West Butler, Choctaw County. Mt. Sterling
(Mohr).

11. North of Silas, Choctaw County. Clarke County (Denny).

13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

Styrax Americana, Lam.

Differs from the preceding chiefly in having more branches
and smaller leaves, and in its habitat.
Grows in wet woods and swamps of various kinds, mostly

non-alluvial.

2A. Cullman and DeKalb Counties (Mohr). Lookout Mountain, Eto-
wah County.
5. Tallapoosa and Lee Counties (Baker & Earle).

STYRACACEKAE 303

6A. Swamp of Yellow Leaf Creek, Chilton County.

6C. Common along Autauga Creek near Booth.

10W. Near Vredenburgh, Monroe County.

12. Covington County.

13. Clarke and Baldwin Counties.

13 or 15. In the flat country west of Mobile Bay.

14. Near Stockton, Baldwin Co. (Mohr).
Styrax pulverulenta, Mx.

Smaller than the preceding, and perhaps only a dwarf form
Gi ib:

Grows in wet pine lands, in the southwestern pine hills
(region 13). Reported from Washington, Mobile and Baldwin

Counties by Dr. Mohr.

HALESIA, Ellis (Carlomohria, Greene; Mohrodendron, Britton).

Small or medium-sized deciduous trees with drooping bell-
shaped white flowers in April, and curious dry winged indehiscent
fruits in fall. Our two species are not well known to the residents
of the regions where they grow, but in other states they have been
called Cottonwood, Possumwood, Tisswood, Cow-licks, Silver Bell
Tree, etc.

Halesia Carolina, L. (H. tetraptera, L.; H. monticola, Sarg.?)

A tree sometimes two feet in diameter and sixty feet tall, but
usually less than half those dimensions. Often cultivated for orna-
ment in the North, less frequently in the South. A horticultural
variety has been described.

Grows in rich woods, especially near rivers. Not very com-
mon.

1A. Lauderdale County (M. C. Wilson).

1B. Colbert County.

2A. Cullman and Cherokee Counties.

4. Talladega (Mohr) and Coosa Counties.

5. Clay and Elmore Counties.

6C. Along Alabama River, Montgomery County. Autauga County.
7. Dallas County (Cocks).

10E. Coffee County.

10W. Butler.

11. Clarke County.

Halesia diptera, L.
Differs from the preceding chiefly in having two wings on

the fruit instead of four; but its range and habitat are also dif-
ferent.

304 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Grows in sandy hammocks, on river-banks, etc., mostly in

the coastal plain.

5. Along Coosa River in Chilton and Elmore Counties and Tallapoosa
River and Channahatchee Creek in Elmore. n

6C. Along Alabama River, Montgomery County, Macon County (C. H.
Schaeffer, 1927).

7. Along Catoma Creek, Montgomery County. Dallas County (Cocks).

10K. Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Wilcox, Choctaw and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw County. Clarke County (Denny). Gopher Hill on Tom-
bigbee River, Washington County.

12. Along Pea River, Geneva County.

13. On Conecuh River, Escambia County. Mobile County (Mohr).

13 or 15. West side of the bay a few miles below Mobile.

Halesia parviflora, Mx., is reported from Lee County by Sargent (Jour.
Arnold Arb. 2:175. 1921).

OLEACEAE. OLIvE FAMILY.

About 25 genera and 500 species, trees and shrubs, in tropi-
cal and temperate regions, mostly in the northern hemisphere.
Some are timber trees (e.g., ash), some are cultivated for orna-
ment (lilac, etc.), shade, hedges (privet) or fruit (olive), and
some are medicinal.

FRAXINUS, L. THE AsHEs.

Trees, with opposite compound deciduous leaves and dry
winged fruits. At least six species have been credited to Alabama,
but they look much alike, and are not easy to distinguish when not
in fruit, or when one passes them rapidly. The following notes
on distribution therefore cannot be regarded as complete and final.
Besides those listed below, F. Biltmoreana and F. Pennsylvanica
have been credited to Alabama, but I have not identified them.

Most of the species are useful for their wood, and some are
planted for shade or ornament. For valuable notes on their eco-
nomic properties, etc., see papers by Sterrett cited in the
bibliography.

Fraxinus Americana, L. (Common or Wuitr) AsH.

The most widely distributed and best known species, and ap-
parently the one most frequently cultivated. Its wood is rather
hard and elastic, straight-grained, seasons and works well, and is
used for bats, oars, handles, furniture, woodenware, interior finish,
parts of cotton gins, carriages and agricultural implements, and

OLEACEAE 305

various other purposes. It also makes excellent fuel. ‘The bark
has been used in domestic medicine, and the leaves are said to repel
rattlesnakes.*

Grows in rich woods, on river-banks, ete.

1A. Limestone County.

1B. Frequent.

2B. Bluffs near Simpson’s Creek, Cullman County. Fayette, Walker,
Tuscaloosa and Bibb Counties.

3. Frequent.

5. Clay, Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Greene County.

7. Sumter and Dallas Counties.

8. Montgomery and Barbour Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10K. Pike, Dale and Coffee Counties.

10W. Sumter, Choctaw, Wilcox, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington, Clarke and Monroe Counties.

Fraxinus lanceolata, Borkh.

Grows mostly on river-banks. Probably widely distributed
(said by Dr. Mohr to range “throughout the state’), but not iden-
tified by the writer until May, 1921, when it was observed to be
one of the commonest trees along the Locust Fork of the War-
rior River, all the way across Jefferson County. I have since seen
what is probably the same thing in Morgan, Bibb, Dallas and But-
ler Counties, and in the upper part of the Mobile delta.

Fraxinus Caroliniana, Mill. (Ff. platycarpa, Mx.) (Pop-as#)

A small leaning or crooked tree of little economic importance,
growing in swamps of various kinds, mostly in the coastal plain.

2B. Formerly on Squaw Shoals, Tuscaloosa County, but destroyed by
the “Lock 17” dam in 1915.

3. St. Clair County (Mohr, Plant Life, p. 67).

6A. Tuscaloosa County.

7. Dallas (Cocks) and Montgomery Counties.

8. Russell County.

10E. Dale and Covington Counties.

10W. Butler County.

11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

14. Mobile County.

Fraxinus quadrangulata, Mx. (BLuE AsH).
A small or medium-sized tree. Sometimes cultivated for or-

nament. ‘The wood is considered desirable for handles of pitch-
forks and similar tools. The inner bark is said to yield a blue dye.

*See Samuel Woodruff, Am. Jour. Sci. 23 :337-339. 1833.

306 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Grows mostly on outcrops of limestone or shale.

1B. Jackson County. Madison County (Mohr).
2B. On bluffs of Warrior River about 10 and 25 miles above Tusca-
loosa (if identified correctly).

ADELIA, P. Browne. (Forestiera, Poir.)

Shrubs or small trees, uncommon and unimportant, so that
they seem to have no generally recognized common names.

Adelia acuminata, Mx. (Borya acuminata, Willd.)

A deciduous shrub or small crooked tree with several trunks,
with inconspicuous greenish flowers in March and April. Occa-
sionally sold by nurserymen, and recommended by them for
hedges.

Grows on banks of rivers that fluctuate several feet during
the year; often associated with Planera. Chiefly in the western
half of the state.

1. On Tennessee River near Florence and Sheffield. Some specimens
seen there about 6 inches in diameter and 25 feet tall. (See Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 33:554. 1906.) Also near Plymouth Rock Landing, Morgan
County.

6C. On Alabama River, about two miles north of Montgomery, and
at House Bluff, Autauga County.

7. On Tombigbee River in Sumter County opposite Demopolis. On
Alabama River in Dallas and Wilcox Counties. J

8. On Tombigbee River in Sumter and Marengo Counties.

10W. On Tombigbee River in Marengo and Choctaw Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Monroe Counties, on Tombigbee and Ala-
bama Rivers.

14. Near Mount Vernon and Stockton (Mohr).

Adelia ligustrina, Mx.

A slender but rather tall shrub. Sometimes cultivated for or-
nament. According to Dr. Mohr’s observations it ought to be a
good honey plant.

Grows mostly on limestone outcrops and river banks, where

it is well protected from fire.

1B. Common on limestone slopes in Madison and Morgan Counties,
and seen in similar situations in Franklin and Blount. In small limy prairie
near Spring Valley, Colbert County.

2B. Shale bluffs on Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County.

3. Calcareous flatwoods near McCalla, Jefferson County. Near Pratt’s
Ferry on Cahaba River, Bibb County (Mohr).

12. Sandy banks of Choctawhatchee and Pea Rivers, Geneva County.

OLEACEAE 307
CHIONANTHUS, Linnaeus. (THE FRINGE TREEs.)

Comprises two or three species of shrubs or small trees, in
the eastern United States and China.

Chionanthus Virginica, L.
GRANDSIR GRAYBEARD. (WuutE AsH).

A large shrub, or sometimes a small tree three or four inches
in diameter and twenty feet tall, with opposite deciduous leaves,
delicate but showy white flowers in lace-like clusters in April (or
earlier southward and later northward), and bluish-black plum-
like (inedible) fruits in fall. Inconspicuous when not in bloom.
Often cultivated for ornament. A decoction of the bark of the
root has tonic and anti-periodic properties, and is used locally for
snake-bites, fevers, and various horse ailments. It is said also
to enter into the composition of some well-known patent medi-
cines.

Grows in moderately rich woods, hammocks, etc., where fire
is infrequent.

1A. Lauderdale County.

2A. Lawrence, Winston, Cullman and Blount Counties.
2B. Tuscaloosa County.

3. Shelby County.

4. Clay County.

5. Elmore and Chilton Counties.

6C. Greene County.

7. Montgomery County. Dallas County (Cocks).
10W. Sumter and Choctaw Counties.

11. Choctaw County.

12. Geneva County.

OSMANTHUS, Loureiro. (Perhaps has no common
name in Alabama.)

Osmanthus Americanus (I..) B. & H. (Olea Americana, 1.,.)
(Map 23)

A small evergreen tree, a foot or less in diameter, and rarely
more than thirty feet tall, with comparatively few branches, and in-
conspicuous greenish flowers. Blooms mostly in April, and has
fruits something like small olives in the fall. This species is so
little known to persons other than botanists that it does not seem

308

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

SHOWING COUNTIES, NATURAL REGIONS
AND KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF

OSMANTHUS AMERICANA

Map 23.

Approximate distribution of Osmanthus Americana.

OLEACEAE 309

to be put to any use, though its wood is heavy, hard, tough and
close-grained. It ought to make an ornamental tree, but it does
not seem to be handled by the nursery trade.

Inhabits bluffs, hammocks, sandy river-banks, etc., protected
from fire, in and near the coastal plain.

5. Chilton County (See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 33:535. 1906).
6A. Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6B. Autauga County.

8. Pike County.

10E. Crenshaw, Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.
10W. Choctaw and Monroe Counties.

11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Geneva County.

13. Washington, Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties.

15. Hammock near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

LOGANIACEAE.

A mainly tropical family, with about 30 genera and 400
species, represented in Alabama by one woody vine and several

herbs.

GELSEMIUM, Jussieu.

Gelsemium sempervirens (IL.) Ait. f. YELLOW JESSAMINE.

A slender twining vine, with shiny evergreen leaves, and
handsome fragrant yellow flowers in spring (about February to
April). Very ornamental, but not cultivated as much as it de-
serves. It belongs to the same family as strychnine, and the
whole plant is more or less poisonous (not to the skin, but when
taken internally). ‘The flowers should not be kept in a bedroom
over night, and even the honey from them is somewhat poisonous.
The roots contain an alkaloid known as gelsemine, which is of fi-
cinal in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.

Inhabits bluffs, hammocks, ravines, roadsides, and various
other places protected from fire, in nearly all parts of the state
south of Tennessee Valley and within 1000 feet of sea-level. Not
very conspicuous when not in bloom, so that the regions I happen
to have visited in February and March figure more largely in my
records of its distribution than the others.

2A. Marion, Cullman, DeKalb and Cherokee Counties.
2B. Jefferson and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Bibb County.

5. Chilton and Elmore Counties.

310 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

6A. Lamar, Pickens, Tuscaloosa, Bibb and Chilton Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Autauga Counties.

6C. Autauga County.

8. Montgomery and Pike Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Barbour, Pike, Dale and Coffee Counties.

10W. Frequent throughout.

11. Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

12. Geneva County.

13. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr). Escambia and Covington.

One or more species of Buddleia, Asiatic shrubs with small purple
flowers, commonly cultivated for ornament, occasionally run wild near
dwellings, or persist for a few years after the house around which they
grew is deserted.

APOCYNACEAE. DocpaneE Faminy.

A rather large family, with about 130 genera and 1,100 species,
of herbs, shrubs and trees, mostly tropical. All have milky juice,
and some are poisonous. Quite a number are cultivated for orna-
ment.

TRACHELOSPERUM, Lemaire. (No common name.)

Trachelospermum difforme (Walt.) Gray. (Forsteronia dif-
formis, A.DC.)

A slender twining vine, woody at the base, something like the
yellow jessamine, but smaller and with narrower leaves and much
smaller flowers, which appear in June. Economic properties un-
known. Probably poisonous, like many of its relatives.

Grows on banks of streams, in second-bottom sloughs, etc.,
usually in silty soil, and mostly in the coastal plain.

1B. Morgan County.

2A. Along Calvert Prong of Locust Fork of Warrior River, Blount
County. (See Bull Torrey Bot. Club, 33-535. 1906.)

2B. Walker County (E. A. Smith). Long Shoal on Locust Fork of
Warrior River, Jefferson County.

6A. River bottoms, etc., Tuscaloosa County.

7. Choctaw Bluff on Warrior River, Greene County. Montgomery
County (Mohr).

8. Sumter and Marengo Counties.

11. St. Stephens Bluff, Washington County.

13 or 14. Mobile County (Mohr).

VERBENACEAE 311

VERBENACEAE. VERBENA (or VERVAIN) FAMILY.

About 75 genera and 750 species, mostly tropical herbs,
shrubs and small trees. Many are ornamental.

CALLICARPA, Linnaeus. (Only one species in the United States).

Callicarpa Americana, L. FRENCH MULBERRY. FOx-BERRY.
(Birp-EYE. INDIAN CURRANT?)

A shrub several feet tall, with rough, coarse deciduous leaves,
small pink flowers clustered close to the stem, in June and July,
followed by small pink-purple berries. Occasionally cultivated for
ornament, and said to be hardy as far north as Washington, D. C.
No other use seems to be known for it.

Grows in dry woods, hammocks, ete., avoiding the richest
and poorest soils and the higher mountains. It is usually found in
places where fire is rare, but fire is not necessarily fatal to it.
The slope of a ravine on the University campus where Callicarpa
is abundant was burned over in June, 1921, and the bushes were
killed to the ground, but a few weeks later they were sending up
new shoots, which reached full height by the end of the season,
but apparently bore no flowers or fruit that year. So probably
annual fires would exterminate the plants in a few years, and even
a fire every other year might discourage it so that it would soon
succumb to the competition of other plants which are less sensitive.

1A. South side of Mussel Shoals, Colbert County.

1B. On limestone slopes, Madison, Marshall, Morgan, Lawrence and
Blount Counties.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr).

2B. Tuscaloosa County (Mohr)

3. Talladega, Jefferson, and probably all the other counties.

5. Clay and Lee Counties (Mohr). Chilton and Elmore Counties.

6A. Franklin, Pickens and Tuscaloosa Counties.

6C. Hale, Autauga and Macon Counties.

7. Greene, Sumter, Marengo and Montgomery Counties.

8. Sumter and Marengo Counties.

9. Sumter County.

10E. Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.

10W. Wilcox, Clarke, Monroe and Butler Counties.

11. Clarke and Monroe Counties.

12. Washington, Covington and Geneva Counties.

13. Washington, Clarke, Mobile (Mohr), Baldwin and Escambia
Counties.

13 or 15. Hammocks on west side of Mobile Bay.

olZ ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

LANTANA, L. THE LANTANAS.

Lantana Camara, L.

A shrub with roughish leaves and flowers of various colors
from pink to orange (and changing to still other colors in fading)
in flat long-stalked clusters, in summer. The older flowers around
the edges of the cluster are always of a different color from the
fresh ones in the middle, giving a sort of rainbow effect. It is
native of tropical America, cultivated for ornament as far north
as Montgomery, and occasionally runs wild near the coast (as it
does much more frequently in Florida). There may be one or
two other species that behave similarly.

VITEX, Linnaeus.
Shrubs and trees, mostly tropical.

Vitex Agnus-Castus, L. LAVENDER. (CHASTE-TREE).

A small crooked tree with furrowed bark, palmately com-
pound deciduous leaves, and spikes of small bluish flowers. It is
commonly called lavender in Alabama, and it resembles the true
lavender (Lavandula) in color of flowers and odor of foliage, but
that belongs to a different family. It is a native of the Mediter-
ranean region, cultivated for ornament in some of our cities and
old rural settlements (e.g., Manningham, Butler Co.), and occa-
sionally escapes to roadsides (Lee County, Earle).

LABIATAE (or NEPETACEAE). Mrnv Famiry.

A large family, with about 160 genera and 3,000 species, in
temperate and tropical regions. Most of the species are aromatic,
and several are used for perfume or medicine. Many are orna-
mental. The great majority are herbs, but there are a few small
shrubs of this family in Alabama and neighboring states.

CLINOPODIUM, Linnaeus) (Satureja, L.; Calamintha, Moench.)

Mostly herbs, but we have two species that are slender shrubs.
They do not seem to have any common names in general use.

LABIATAE 313

Clinopodium Georgianum, Harper.* (C. Carolinianum of Hel-
ler, not of Miller.)

A low shrub with pretty pink flowers in September and Oc-
tober. It could probably be cultivated for ornament, if desired.
I have heard it called “rosemary” in Choctaw County, and it does
belong to the same family as the true rosemary.

Grows in dry woods that are not often burned. Ranges from
the mountains nearly to the coast, but rather rare.

4 Calhoun, Cleburne and Clay Counties.

5. Elmore and Tallapoosa Counties. Lee County (E. A. Smith).
10E. Barbour and Coffee Counties.

11. Choctaw and Monroe Counties.

13. Clarke, Mobile and Escambia Counties.

Clinopodium coccineum (Nutt.) Kuntze. (Gerardea flammea,

Bartram ?7)

A slender sparingly branched shrub two or three feet tall, with
small evergreen leaves, and horizontal tubular bright red flowers,
blooming all summer and perhaps longer. Very showy, but little
known. It has a pleasant odor which might possibly be utilized in
perfumery.

Grows in the poorest sandy or rocky soils, unfit for cultiva-
tion, where the vegetation is too sparse to carry fire.

13. Near Rockville, Clarke County. “Stony gravelly heights” in what
is now the southern part of Monroe County or the northern part of Bald-
win (Bartram, August, 17777). Sandstone rocks in pine woods about five
miles west of Bay Minette. Spring Hill (Mohr).

15. Bay shores and old dunes, Baldwin County.

CONRADINA, Gray. (Apparently no common name).

Conradina canescens (T.. & G.) Gray. (Calamintha canescens,

Tee

A low shrub with small narrow grayish evergreen leaves, and
pale bluish flowers in fall. Economic properties unknown.

Grows on old dunes and in other very poor dry soils, not far
from the coast.

*For the reasons for this change of name see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
33 :243-245. 1906.

+Bartram’s Gerardea flammea has been identified by Mohr (Plant Life,
p. 15) and Pennell (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 40:124, 405. 1913) with Macran-
thera fuchsioides, but that is a tall herb which grows in swamps, and would
hardly be in bloom in August.

314 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

13. Between Bay Minette and Stockton (Mohr).
15. Navy Cove, Mobile County, and along Perdido Bay (Mohr).
Dunes south of Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

SOLANACEAE. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY.

A large family in temperate and tropical regions, with over
75 genera and 2,000 species, mostly herbs. Includes several im-
portant vegetables, such as the Irish potato, tomato, egg-plant and
red pepper, and also some ornamental and poisonous plants and
many weeds.

LYCIUM, Linnaeus. (Marrrmony VINE, etc.)

Lycium Carolinianum, Walt.

A straggling shrub with blue flowers in June and red berries
in October. Little known, but some of its foreign relatives are
cultivated for ornament.

Grows in and around salt marshes. Found in both of our
coast counties by Dr. Mohr.

SCROPHULARIACEAE. Ficworr Famity.

A large family of world-wide distribution, with about 180
genera and 3,000 species, mostly herbs. Includes many weeds and
ornamental plants, but few that are useful.

PAULOWNIA, Siebold & Zuccarini.

Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Baill. (P. imperialis, Sieb. &
Zucc. )

(Seems to have no generally recognized common name, but I
have heard it called “cottonwood” in Georgia, perhaps on account
of the resemblance of its pods to cotton bolls. )

A medium-sized tree much like the Catalpa in general ap-
pearance, with large opposite fuzzy heart-shaped deciduous leaves,
large blue flowers in erect terminal clusters in spring from buds
formed the previous fall, and dry pods about an inch long. Native
of Japan, where its wood is said to be used for veneers and sandals.

Cultivated for ornament and shade in many parts of the
state, and inclined to run wild around cities. I have seen it doing
so at Tuscaloosa, and Dr. Mohr reports it from Montgomery and
Pike Counties.

BIGNONIACEAE BS
BIGNONIACEAE. ‘TRuMPET-CREEPER FAMILY.

About 100 genera and 600 species, mostly tropical trees and
vines, many of them ornamental.

BIGNONIA, Linnaeus.

Bignonia crucigera, L. (£. capreolata, L.) CROSS-VINE.

An evergreen vine, sometimes an inch in diameter, climbing
high up into trees by means of tendrils. The stem is divided
lengthwise nearly to the middle into four equal segments, sepa-
rated by a thin layer of what appears to be a part of the bark;
and that is what gives the plant its name. Flowers rather large
and leathery, dark red with yellow border, in April; fruit a flat
pendulous pod, full of winged seeds, much less abundant than the
flowers.

Sometimes cultivated for ornament, like some of its more
showy tropical relatives. The stems used to be cut into short
lengths and smoked by boys, their porosity being the chief adap-
tation for this purpose.

Grows on bluffs, in bottoms, hammocks, and other places
pretty well protected from fire. Common throughout the state
except perhaps in regions 4, 14 and 15. It seems to climb Pinus
Taeda oftener than any other tree, but perhaps only because that
is our commonest tree.

TECOMA, Juss. THe TRUMPET-CREEPERS.
Tecoma radicans (L.) DC. (Cow-1TtcH.* )

A vine, climbing by means of rootlets, with porous stems
sometimes as much as four inches thick, pale shreddy bark, com-
pound deciduous leaves, and large leathery trumpet-shaped red
flowers in summer. Often cultivated for ornament, and hardy as
far north as New England.

Widely distributed over the state, but more as a weed in fields
and along roadsides than as a native. Its principal natural habitats
seem to be flatwoods and bottoms. It is rare or absent in some of
the regions with poorest soil, such as 2A, 4, 6B, 13 and 15.

*This is a very inappropriate name, but seems to be the usual designa-
tion in Georgia at least.

316 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

CATALPA, Scopoli.

Catalpa bignonioides, Walt. (C. Catalpa (L.) Karst.) CATa.pa,
or CaTaAwBa. (INDIAN BEAN, Cicar TREE.)

A medium-sized rank-scented tree, leaning or crooked, with
large alternate heart-shaped deciduous leaves, large clusters of
pretty whitish flowers in April and May, and long slender spindle-
shaped pods hanging straight down and full of winged seeds.

Often planted for ornament, both north and south. The wood
is said to be very durable, but it has little else to recommend it,
for it is soft, coarse-grained, and crooked. ‘The bark and seeds
as well as the wood are supposed to have some medicinal proper-
ties, but they are not officinal. A caterpillar which feeds on the
leaves, sometimes in large numbers, is greatly esteemed for fish-
bait, and some of the trees may have been planted by the Indians
for that purpose.

Grows normally on banks of rivers and creeks, and occasion-
ally in weedy places. Rather scarce in the wild state, and appears
somewhat like an introduced tree, though it is not known to grow
anywhere but in Alabama and adjoining states, and it seems to be
more abundant in Alabama than anywhere else.

1B. Along Paint Rock River, Jackson County.

2A. Sipsey Fork of Warrior River, Winston County (Mohr).
2B. Near mouth af Davis Creek, Tuscaloosa County.

3. Cherokee, Etowah, St. Clair, Talladega and Bibb Counties.

5. On Tallapoosa River in Cleburne and Elmore Counties, and Coosa
River in Chilton County.

6A. Warrior River, Tuscaloosa County; Mulberry Creek, Chilton
County.

6B. Old fields near Joffre (formerly Kingston sta.), Autauga County.
6C. Near Tallapoosa River, Montgomery County.

7. Dallas County (Cocks). Along Catoma Creek, Montgomery
County.

8. Along Conecuh River, Pike County.

10E. Along Conecuh River, Crenshaw and Covington Counties.
10W. Sumter, Monroe, Conecuh and Butler Counties.

11. Choctaw, Washington and Conecuh Counties.

12. Along Pea River, Geneva County.

14. Near Stockton, Baldwin County (Mohr).

RUBIACH AE >< 317

RUBIACEAE. Mapper Famity.

A large family, mostly herbs in temperate regions and woody
plants in the tropics. Includes a few species of great economic im-
portance, such as coffee and quinine; also several furnishing other
medicines or dyes, and many ornamental plants.

CEPHALANTHUS, Linnaeus.
Cephalanthus occidentalis, L.
Burron-BusH. ELBow BusH. GLopk-FLOWER.

A crooked shrub or occasionally tree-like, with opposite or
whorled deciduous leaves, and spherical heads of white flowers in
summer. Recommended for cultivation in damp grounds. ‘The
bark, especially of the root, has some medicinal properties, but it
is not officinal.

Grows in ponds and sloughs and on banks of streams, where
the soil is moderately fertile and the water fluctuates a few feet
with the seasons. Widely scattered over the state. Observed in
every region except 4, 6B, and 10E, and there is no imaginable
reason why it should not grow in the last-named. It is probably
commonest in the Coosa Valley.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE. HoNneEySuCKLE FAmILy.

Includes about 11 genera and 350 species, mostly shrubs or

vines, chiefly confined to the north temperate zone.
SAMBUCUS, Linnaeus. THE ELprErs.
Sambucus Canadensis, L. (ComMMoN) ELDER.

A well-known shrub with thick but weak and pithy stems,
compound deciduous leaves (which come out very early in the
spring), and large flat clusters of small cream-colored flowers in
early summer.

Offered for sale by nurserymen for ornamental purposes.
The stems are sometimes made into pop-guns, etc., by small boys.
The flowers furnish honey, and can also be fried in batter and
eaten, with the stem of the flower-cluster for a handle. The ber-
ries are not very good raw, but make good preserves and jelly,
especially if mixed with other kinds. The bark, flowers and fruit
are medicinal, but not officinal.

Grows in damp rich soils; usually a weed, especially along
branches and ditches through fields; but probably native in some
swamps and alluvial bottoms. Observed in every region except
2A, 4, 12, 14 and 15. Apparently commonest in the Coosa Valley.

318 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

VIBURNUM, Linnaeus. Arro\Ww-woop, etc.

Viburnum rufidulum, Rai. (J”. ferrugineum (T. & G.) Small;
V. rufotomentosum Small. Formerly confused with the
northern I’. prunifolium, from which it differs in having
larger and shinier leaves, with rusty petioles.) BLack Haw.

A small tree, with leaning or crooked trunk usually only a few
inches in diameter. Blooms in April, ripens its fruit in fall. Or-
namental. The bark, especially of the root, is used in domestic
medicine, and would doubtless be officinal but for the fact that
this species was only recently separated from its northern relative
by the systematists. The fruit is edible, but not particularly de-
sirable.

Inhabits dry woods, bluffs, hammocks, ete., where the soil is
moderately rich and fire is rare.

1B. Madison, Morgan (Mohr), Lawrence, Marshall and Blount Coun-

ties.

2A. Cullman County; not common.

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

3. Blount, Etowah, Tallacega, Jefferson and Bibb Counties.

5. Near Tallassee, Elmore County, and probably in all the other coun-
ties.

6A. Lamar County (Mohr).

6C. Autauga County.

7. Dallas County (Cocks). Near House Bluff, Autauga County.
Along Catoma Creek, Montgomery County.

10E. Pike and Coffee Counties.

10W. Butler, Wilcox (Buckley) and Choctaw Counties.

11. Clarke County.

15. Hammock near Orange Beach, Baldwin County.

Viburnum acerifolium, L.

A medium-sized shrub, differing from our other liburnums
in having three-lobed leaves a little like those of the red maple
(whence its name). Blooms in May. Ornamental.

Grows in dry woods, ravines and bluffs, pretty well protected
from fire. Not common.

2A. Cullman, Blount and Cherokee Counties.

2B. Walker and Tuscaloosa Counties.

4. Clay County.

5. Clay and Chilton Counties.

6B. Tuscaloosa and Hale Counties.

10W. Clarke County (Mohr). Mountains of Monroe County.

11. Suggsville (Denny).

(15. Reported by Dr. Mohr from Point Clear, Baldwin County, but
that seems improbable, and may be a mistake.)

CAPRIFOLIACEAE 319
Viburnum bracteatum, Kehder.* (V. molle, Mx.?)

A shrub with roundish prominently veined and toothed leaves,
blooming in April and May.

Grows in dry or rich woods.

2A. About five miles from Albertville (Harbison).
3. On a limestone hill near Lagarde, Etowah County.

Viburnum semitomentosum (Mx.) Rehder.t (lV. molle of
Mohr and most 19th century writers. V. scabrellum,

Chapm. )

A tall deciduous shrub with veiny leaves, white flowers in
June and bluish berries in fall. Would probably be cultivated for
ornament if it was better known.

Grows in hammocks and creek bottoms, in the coastal plain.

6A. Tuscaloosa and Hale Counties.

6C. Hale and Autauga Counties.

8. Pike County.

10E. Barbour, Pike, Dale, Coffee and Covington Counties.
10W. Butler and Wilcox Counties.

11. Choctaw, Clarke and Conecuh Counties.

13. Near Brewton, Escambia County. Mobile County (Mohr).

Viburnum nudun, LL. Possum Haw.

A medium-sized shrub with smooth oblong deciduous leaves.
Blooms in April and May. Fruit pinkish when immature, finally
blue. Might be considered ornamental.

Grows in sandy bogs, branch-swamps, etc., mostly in the coas-
tal plain.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr). Chandler Mountain, St. Clair County.
4. Talladega and Clay Counties.

5. Cleburne, Randolph and Chilton Counties.

6A. Franklin, Marion, Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Elmore Counties.
6B. ‘Tuscaloosa, Chilton and Autauga Counties.

10E. Dale County.

10W. Sumter County.

11. Choctaw County.

12. Washington County.

13. Common throughout.

15. Near Point Clear, Baldwin County.

*Described in Trees and Shrubs 1:135, pl. 68. 1903.
7Described in Rhodora 6:59. 1904.

320 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA
Viburnum nitidum, Ait. (V. nudum angustifolium, T. & G.)

Differs from the preceding chiefly in having narrower and
paler leaves (see Mohr’s Plant Life, p. 744), and approaches the
next in some respects. Perhaps not a very distinct species. Habi-
tat similar.

10E. Dale and Coffee Counties.

12. Washington County.
13. Mobile (Mohr) and Baldwin Counties.

Viburnum cassinoides, L. (WITHE ROD).

g, and

more northerly range. Sometimes cultivated for ornament.

A shrub with still narrower leaves than the precedin

Grows along streams in the mountains.

2A. Pisgah gorge, Jackson County (Harbison). Along Little River
on Lookout Mountain, in DeKalb and Cherokee Counties.

A few other species of Viburnum, such as V. Lentago \., V. dentatum
L., and V. obovatum Walt., have been reported from Alabama or near by,
and may turn up in this state some time.

SYMPHORICARPOS, Jussieu.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, Moench (S. vulgaris, Mx.)
(CorAL-BERRY. INDIAN CURRANT.)

A small shrub with deciduous !eaves and clustered purplish
berries. Frequently cultivated for ornament.

Native on limestone outcrops, and running wild along roads
and railroads in various kinds of soil, in the northern parts of the
state.

1A. Lauderdale County.

1B. Jackson (Mohr), Marshall, Morgan, Colbert and Franklin Coun-
ties.

1C. Morgan County.

3. Limestone hill near Lagarde, Etowah County.

LONICERA, Linnaeus. THE HoNEYSUCKLES AND WOoODBINES.

Our species are evergreen vines, but many are shrubs.

Lonicera sempervirens, L. :
(Common Woopsink. ‘TRUMPET HONEYSUCKLE.)

A twining vine with evergreen leaves and slender red (rarely
yellow) flowers, in April. Often cultivated for ornament.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE 321

Grows naturally on bluffs and in hammocks, but also fre-
quent in other places protected from fire, such as bushy road-
sides. Widely distributed, but not very common.

1B. Limestone slopes of Warnock Mountain, Blount County.

2A. Cullman County (Mohr).

2B. Near Lock 14, Tuscaloosa County.
3. Limestone hil! near Lagarde, Etowah County.
4. Coldwater Mountain, Calhoun County.

6C. Perry County.

7. Montgomery County.

10E. Pike and Dale Counties.

10W. Choctaw County.
13. Washington, Mobile, Baldwin and Escambia Counties (Mohr).

Lonicera flava, Sims.

Similar to the preceding, except that its leaves are a little
wider and its flowers always yellow. Equally ornamental.
Grows on siliceous rocks among the mountains.

2A. Madison and Marshall Counties (if identified correctly).
4. Calhoun, Talladega and Clay Counties.

Lonicera Japonica, Thunb. (Nintooa, Sweet).
JAPANESE HONEYSUCKLE.

A slender many-stemmed vine with hairy evergreen leaves,
and fragrant cream-colored (occasionally pinkish) flowers from
May to November. Originally cultivated for ornament, but now
in disrepute on account of its weedy tendencies. It has escaped to
roadsides, railroads and thickets (protected from fire) in all the
southeastern states, making a decided nuisance of itself in many
places by growing so densely as to choke out other vegetation.
(See Andrews 2 and 3, in bibliography.) It is said to be com-
paratively easy to eradicate, though, when the ground is wanted
for any purpose, and it may do some good by checking erosion
in gullies and railroad cuts.

It is so widely distributed over the state that it is hardly worth
while to give localities for it. It is scarce or absent in the moun-
tains and other thinly settled regions, and in poor soils, and ap-
parently not very common in the black belt, which is near the op-
posite extreme.

L,. longiflora (Sabine) DC., a related species, is said by Dr. Mohr to
be escaped from cultivation in Mobile County.

322 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

‘DIERVILLA, Moench.

Diervilla rivularis, Gattinger.

A small deciduous shrub with small yellow flowers in sum-
mer, followed by bottle-shaped dry’ pods. . Ornamental, but rare
and little known.

Grows on rocky banks of streams in the plateau region (2A).
Jackson County (Harbison).. Marshall, DeKalb and Cherokee
Counties.

D. sessilifolia Buckley, a similar species, chiefly confined to the moun-
tains of North Carolina and. Tennessee, has been credited to Alabama with-
out definite locality, but the preceding species may have been mistaken
for it. What seems to be this, however, has been pointed out to me along
Eight-Mile Creek in Cullman County by W. Wolf (September, 1927).

AMBROSIACEAE... RAaGweep FAMILY.

About 8 genera and 75 species, mostly herbs, but includes a
few shrubs. United by many authors with the next family.

IVA, Linnaeus. Marsu ELper, ete.

Iva imbricata, Walt.

A weak succulent evergreen shrub, a few feet tall. Economic
properties. unknown.

Grows’ on beaches and dunes. Found by Dr..Mohr:on West
Fowl. River, Mobile County.

Iva frutescens, L.

A short-lived. weedy-looking. shrub, with.no. known use.
Grows on the edges of brackish and salt marshes, about high
tide mark. Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

COMPOSITAE (or CARDUACEAE).
THISTLE OR SUNFLOWER FAMILY.

The largest family of flowering plants, with about 800 genera
and at. least 10,000 species, of world-wide. distribution... The great
majority are ‘herbs, but there are a few shrubs and even trees in
warm-temperate regions. Several species yield food, medicine, dye,
etc., and hundreds are cultivated for ornament. _A still greater
number are weeds. Our woody ones are chiefly confined to the
vicinity of the coast, asin the preceding family.

COMPOSITAE 323

CHRYSOMA, Nuttall.

Chrysoma pauciflosculosa (Mx.) Greene. (Apparently no
common name)

A weak evergreen shrub, two or three feet tall, with pale
green leaves, and small yellow flowers in fall. Economic prop-
erties unknown.

Grows on old dunes and other dry sterile sandy soils where
the vegetation is too sparse to carry fire, near the coast.

15. Dauphin Island, Mobile County (Mohr). Common on top of the
bluffs facing Mobile Bay near Daphne, Montrose and Fairhope, also farther
south along the bay shore, and on the coast south of Orange Beach, Bald-
win County.

BACCHARIS, Linnaeus... (GrouNDSEL TREE, etc.)
Baccharis halimifolia, L.

A tall ragged-looking evergreen shrub, with inconspicuous
white flowers in the fall, soon followed by the more conspicuous
white pappus. Sometimes. cultivated in northern parks.

Its natural habitat is the edges of salt and brackish marshes,
but it often grows in damp weedy places farther inland, in Geor-
gia and Florida if not Alabama.

15. Near Magazine and Point Clear.

Baccharis angustifolia, Mx.

Smaller than the preceding, with much narrower leaves.
Grows on edges of salt marshes.

15. Navy Cove, Mobile County (Mohr). Near Oak, Baldwin County.

BORRICHIA, Adanson.
Borrichia frutescens (L.) DC.

A weak almost unbranched shrub or woody herb, about two
feet tall, with few but rather large heads of yellow flowers in
summer.

15. Salt marshes, Mobile and Baldwin Counties (Mohr).

324 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

SUMMARY OF THE CATALOGUE.

The following table indicates the number of genera containing
native woody plants, and of native species of large trees, small
trees, woody vines and shrubs, in each plant family that is repre-
sented by woody plants growing wild in Alabama, 74 families in
all as here interpreted. Introduced species are noted in a column
at the right, without distinction as to size, but the varieties, hy-
brids, and species of doubtful occurrence or validity, mentioned
incidentally in the foregoing pages, are not counted at all.

The numbers in the table of course cannot be regarded as
final in any case, for there will always be differences of opinion
as to what constitutes a genus or species, it is impossible to draw
a sharp line between tree and shrub (and the same species may be
both at different times or places), and additional species may be
found in the state almost any day. ‘These numbers represent a con-
servative estimate, for there is no obvious advantage in claiming
as many species as possible, to make it appear that Alabama has
more kinds of trees or shrubs than some other states.

SUMMARY 325
Native
eet 3
ig 5 Ben) Ri g
ilceatantcawca We
o) « & Ral = =
oe 1) H op) > ap) rae
GYMNOSPERMS
iSmniterde) 2 ‘ims taggly
MONOCOTYLEDONS
(rammieae 2222 1 2
j2 lucas | eee 3 3
ieiiatede a ne Ee it S 2
Snalgeqceae 2 1 6
APETALAE |
paelandaccae 2 2 || 10 at
inate cede 2 1 gl led ye 3 =
Sy] SECT a a 2 1 2 it il
@oregiaceae, 8 3 Bl A 2
veeetlev@ede en 2 1 a 1
Siapmliretae <2 Sree O alates. Male
inte) ae 3} 5 2 =
Unc ae 1 ct 1 “ 3
igiemacene ~ it il ri
ieorampnaceae™ 2 8 ul 1 s
Santalacede 2. i es il 3
Pmicrolocitaceéae .. saan il 1 =
olgpmudceae. 5 a 2 1 2
POLYPETALAE
aemoliaceae 2 a 4| 3 1 1
RnIACeAC be 1 3
Ranunculaceae 2 i 1
Galyesmihaceae 1 SSA to! 1
| OIRICR CERT oo HS aaa eee eenmraaes lace 1 2 h 2
Dapdipieacede. 2 | 1 |
Grossulariaceae = 1 © 2
Hamamelidaceae __---------- 3 1 2 a
Pee ee es See 29 es Oe 5 : 2 ) 2
Wamtacede 28! te 4 nf 8 3 v
Wiempacede 8 2 1 6 1 1
Minmiesacede: 2.00 : bs i 2
M@aesdipiniaceae 2 2 1 1a ta os 1
iecrtiinnMOSAe 4 pA es) 2 af 5 1
Ratieede ouster eee ees 2 1 2 }
Simacubaceae) 2s J =e \tagee
Mieliaiceae.. 2. es Se : : il
Buphorbiaceae. 0 3 Be lm ee ee al ae!
mnpercacese: <1 ihn ese 1 Sl as era
Pniacatciacede” 2s i" sa 4 2 1 5

ECONOMIC BOTANY OF\ALABAMA

i Native
Gyrillaccie.e =. Ae 2 2 ]
Aquifeltscese | 2S: 1 4) re
dlastra@eae rs: 2 yunve! we 2 1 2 3
SEL O4G1(C (21 6) 2 [ch ea Nn ts : Aa 1
Diapaidedecae ee ae 1 Ly
PAC ChAGeHoupias. |< Leelee CS 1 5 ul nf
Rihatinacede tit 9 2s 4 1 ak
GUE OS SI RIMM cere OO 4 ue 9 A L
GSN 7 ip Aa Ane 1 P es
Stereuliacere ss. ss et ‘ iia =| ieee
Mneaceae ease A Been ea 2 1 2 e
Ely peticaceaey Lies a 2 12
ithyimeleaceae | = fe 1 : eee |
TP yitmraicede se ais yy As ih Paes! 1
bi NATE Veh ie a ae af E : 1
Cornacedey otek Ver oa 2 3 2 Ah ie
GAMOPETALAE
Ciethratede wis oe he 1 2 \t se ae as
PCAC eae arth. oA vies rare. e ik 1) 1) Deis
Vaceiniatede : sits Ure 4 iL Oe
Eebenaceden eka ss BR, 1 i ; rs :
DAP OLACcae pen eters 2 1 2
Symplocaceae) 4425602 1 1 Pee
Diytacacede™ sea ee! 5 te 2 - 2 3 2
Wilea ced Gah ee ee as See 4 2... 3.1. — || Saeine
orantaceace pra 25 ee: 1 1 Neat
mpocynaceie ar iow SR 1 1 Beg ||
Verbenaceae _____ EEN. 1 1 24
Dalieataey meee tk 2 ry 2 3 ||
SGlanaceae yas sot) ee 1 2 H
Scrophulatiacese = =) se b = 1 ee 1
Bignoniacese pes 6 6 3 1 2 See
Rubiaceae} ee 1 Es il a
Capriioliaeeaey sh 4 Lal, Selva 1
PNET OSIACEAG a Bt tae 1 2
Compositae’ i205 Pe inte , 4
Total Gymnosperms. 5 || 13
Total Monocotyledons: 6 =) | Ge 26| ee
otal tNpetalacyses okt ons 23 || 838 | 16 | 2 | 138 |} 4:
Total Pélypetalae: “ts 72 |) 181 86"1-1% Sa SG
Total Gamopetalae 1... 39 4.) Dh) Yo eee
Grand totale 2 oe eet see 145 || 73 | 63 | 32 |150 || 25

SUMMARY 327

It happens that the number of species of trees, large and
small, in Alabama is just about the same as in most other south-
eastern states (except Florida, which has more, on account of
the large tropical element in the extreme south), and also Texas
and California. which are much larger and more diversified. Of
course the number enumerated could be greatly increased by 1n-
cluding the multitude of doubtfully distinct forms of Crataegus,
Tilia, etc., but the same could be done also in other states, and the
relative numbers would still be about the same. Incidentally we
have considerably more species of trees than the whole of Eu-
rope. Data.on numbers of species of shrubs and vines in other
states and countries are not readily available, but they are probably
approximately proportional to the trees, in climates like ours.

The family represented by the most genera of woody plants
is Ericaceae, with 7. Large trees are most numerous in the Cupu-
liferae (mostly oaks), small trees (not counting Crataegus) like-
wise, vines in the Vitaceae (unless we should split the species of
Smilax more minutely), and shrubs in the Ericaceae. It is in-
teresting, and perhaps of. some evolutionary significance, that all
our Gymnosperms are large trees, about half the large trees are in
the group Apetalae, and most of the small trees, vines and shrubs
in’ the Polypetalae. .The Gamopetalae have comparatively few
woody plants in proportion to the total number of species in that

group.

It is a curious fact that in some families which consist mostly
of herbs, such as Polygonaceae, Labiatae, Solanaceae, Ambros-
iaceae and Compositae, our shrubby representatives are chiefly
confined to the vicinity of the coast. It happens that these all
have simple leaves; while in two other mainly herbaceous families,
the Ranunculaceae and Araliaceae, our single woody representa-
tives have compound leaves and show no partiality to the coast.

328 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES

It will be of interest to plant geographers and perhaps others
to group the species of woody plants together according to certain
similarities of distribution within the state. In this study two
extreme types hardly need to be considered: first, species so widely
distributed over the state that one would have to seek elsewhere
for their limiting factors, and last, those which are so rare here
that it is not safe to draw conclusions from the available records.

In each of the following lists trees and shrubs will be com-
bined, and arranged in the same order as in the catalogue. Where
we have only one species, or all the Alabama species of a genus be-
long in the same category, the generic name only is given. ‘The
names of evergreens are printed in heavy type, to facilitate certain
important generalizations. Where a name is followed by (x) it
means that the species extends farther in the direction indicated
(north or south or inland or coastward, as the case may be) in
some near-by state, so that its limit in this state is probably not
determined by climate or altitude. Of course it is not usually pos-
sible to mark the limits of a species by a sharp line, for most spe-
cies thin out gradually away from their centers of distribution, and
after one has apparently gotten entirely out of the range of a
given species a few scattered individuals may turn up farther on.
(This is especially true of those whose distribution has been modi-
fied by civilization.) So the following generalizations cannot be
considered as final.

First we may consider the southern or coastward or lower al-
titudinal limits of species whose main distribution is farther north.

The following seem to be chiefly confined to higher altitudes,
say above 1000 feet (and therefore to the northern half of the
state).

Tsuga Canadensis
Betula lenta

Ribes curvatum
Ribes Cynosbati
Prunus Alabamensis
Stewartia pentagyna
Azalea arborescens

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES 329

Rhododendron Catawbiense

Viburnum cassinoides

Lonicera flava

Diervilla

The ranges of the following seem to terminate somewhere
between the mountains and the fall line (inland edge of the
coastal plain).

Juglans cinerea

Corylus

Ulmus serotina

Hydrangea cinerea

Neviusia

Rubus occidentalis

Robinia Pseudacacia

Schmaltzia aromatica

Acer Saccharum

Polycodium melanocarpum

Symphoricarpos

The following two trees which are common in the hill country
extend a little south of the fall line in places, but apparently not
as far as the black belt.

Pinus Virginiana

Quercus montana

The following reach the black belt or blue marl region, and
apparently no farther south in Alabama (though they are found
along or near the Chattahoochee River in Florida or pretty close
to it).

Salix humilis (x)

Ulmus fulva (x)

Hypericum aureum (x)

The following seem to stop in the southern red hills or in the
adjacent lime hills, though more thorough exploration may remove
some of them from this category. (All are deciduous. )

Juglans nigra (x)

Hicoria ovata

Castanea dentata

Quercus Durandii

Quercus pagodaefolia

Quercus velutina (x)

330 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Quercus borealis maxima

Quercus coccinea

Ulmus Americana

Aristolochia tomentosa

Magnolia acuminata

Magnolia tripetala

Xanthorrhiza

Benzoin aestivale (x)

Philadelphus

Hydrangea arborescens (x)

Malus angustifolia (x)

Crataegus spathulata

Prunus Americana (x)

Ptelea (x)

Rhus glabra (x)

Acer leucoderme

Acer Negundo (x)

Aesculus parviflora

Dirca (x)

Cornus alternifolia

Polycodium stamineum

Vaccinium vacillans

Halesia Carolina (x)

Fraxinus Americana (x)

Viburnum acerifolium

The following seem to get into the pine-barren regions (12
and 13) only along the larger streams which rise farther inland.
Those marked (x) occur also in Florida, chiefly in calcareous soils,
and their southern limits are probably determined by soil rather
than climate.

Pinus echinata (x)

Arundinaria macrosperma

Fagus (x)

Ostrya (x)

Populus deltoides

Quercus lyrata (x)

Quercus Phellos (x)

Ulmus alata

Morus rubra (x)

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES

Platanus

Brunnichia

Magnolia pyramidata (x)
Magnolia macrophylla (x)
Hydrangea quercifolia (x)
Crataegus viridis (x)
Crataegus apiifolia (x)
Cercis (x)

Amorpha fruticosa

Tlex decidua

Aesculus Pavia (x)
Berchemia (x)
Ampelopsis cordata
Aralia spinosa (x)
Cornus stricta (x)

Nyssa uniflora (x)
Kalmia latifolia

Adelia acuminata (x)
Adelia ligustrina (x)
Catalpa

The next few lists deal with northern or inland limits.

The

first is of species which in Alabama are known only in or near the

coast strip.

Most of them are evidently thus restricted on account

of the peculiar soil conditions existing there (salt water or sterile
soil), rather than climate, for several of them extend far up the
Atlantic coast, and a few some distance into the interior of Geor-

gia.

Pinus clausa

Smilax auriculata (x)
Polygonella polygama
Sageretia (x)
Lycium (x)
Ceratiola (x)
Conradina

Iva imbricata (x)

Iva frutescens (x)
Chrysoma (x)
Baccharis (x)
Borrichia (x)

332 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

The following seem to be confined to the pine-barren regions,
or nearly so, as far as Alabama is concerned, though some extend
northward in the coastal plain to North Carolina, and the first one
(besides many herbs of similar distribution) reaches New Eng-
land.

Chamaecyparis (x)
Serenoa

Myrica inodora
Quercus geminata
Quercus minima
Chrysobalanus

Stillingia aquatica (x)
Cliftonia

Ilex Cassine

Ilex myrtifolia
Ceanothus microphyllus
Gordonia

Hypericum myrtifolium
Hypericum aspalathoides
Hypericum opacum
Kalmia hirsuta

Pieris phillyreifolia
Gaylussacia hirtella
Styrax pulverulenta

Most of these are evergreen bog plants, and the most impor-
tant factors for them are probably sour soil and copious summer
rainfall.

The following seem to have their inland limits in the south-
ern red hills (region 10, especially the eastern division), though
some are not found very far from the pine-barrens.

Pinus Elliottii
Taxodium ascendens
Asimina angustifolia
Hypericum fasciculatum
Leucothoe axillaris
Leucothoe racemosa (x)
Viburnum nitidum

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES 333

At this point might be mentioned two shrubs (one of them
occasionally arborescent) whose chief distribution in Alabama is
in the southern red hills, though they have been seen once or twice
in the hill country north of the fall line, and they both range north-
ward to Canada; namely, Dirca palustris and Cornus alternifolia.
Just why they should prefer the southern to the northern part of
the state is an unsolved problem, unless there are some unsus-
pected differences between the northern and southern forms.
(Compare Magnolia Fraseri and M. pyramidata. )

Almost the only woody plants that seem to have their inland
limits in the black belt are Persea Borbonia and Bumelia lanugi-
nosa. Pinus glabra and Magnolia grandiflora extend just a little
farther inland, to the Eutaw belt, and the following seem to have
their inland limits in the more typical portions of the central pine
belt (6A or 6B).

Pinus serotina

Smilax Walteri

Myrica cerifera

Quercus Margaretta

Crataegus Michauxii

Ilex vomitoria

Ilex coriacea

Ilex glabra (x)

Gaylussacia frondosa

Viburnum semitomentosum

Some of these may be limited by temperature, and others by
the scarcity of sand or swamps farther inland.

In Alabama a large number of species that are very charac-
teristic of the coastal plain, and apparently confined to it in most
other states, are found occasionally a few miles, say ten to fifty,
above the fall line, in soils evidently residual from the older rocks,
and having no connection with the coastal plain. The reason for
this is not at present obvious, but there may be some unknown
factors of geological history involved. Among the woody plants
which seem to belong to this category are the following:

Taxodium distichum

Sabal glabra

Smilax lanceolata

Quercus Catesbaei

334 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Quercus cinerea

Quercus laurifolia

Planera

Brunnichia

Magnolia pyramidata

Illicium

Prunus Caroliniana

Wisteria

Sebastiana

Cyrilla

Acer Floridanum

Pieris nitida

Vaccinium Myrsinites

Halesia diptera

Fraxinus Caroliniana

Osmanthus

More extreme cases of the same tendency are Pinus palustris,
which ascends to nearly 2,000 feet on the Blue Ridge, Hicoria
aquatica and Quereus lyrata, in Morgan County, Persea pubescens,
which grows in wet ravines on the slopes of the Blue Ridge,
Berchemia and Ampelopsis arborea, in the ‘Tennessee Valley,
Nyssa biflora, in a few places in the plateau region, Nyssa uni-
flora, common in some parts of the Tennessee Valley, Clethra
alnifolia, along streams on the Blue Ridge and on dry hills in
northeastern Chilton County (and ranging northward to New
England), Styrax grandifolia, in Cullman County, and Adelia acu-
minata, on the Tennessee River in Morgan County. ‘There are
also a few species which in the states of the Atlantic slope are con-
fined to the coastal plain, or nearly so, but in Alabama are known
from so many upland stations as to be hardly worth special men-
tion here, such as Myrica Carolinensis, Quercus Michauxu, Mag-
nolia glauca, Ascyrum stans, and Trachelospermum.

The following extend up about to the foot of the Blue Ridge
or other non-caleareous mountains, but not higher, perhaps in most
cases merely on account of the poor or rocky soil or the absence
of muddy streams.

Arundinaria macrosperma

Juglans nigra (x)

Hicoria ovata (x)

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES

Salix nigra

Populus deltoides
Carpinus

Betula nigra

Quercus alba (x)
Quercus Michauxii
Quercus falcata
Quercus nigra
Quercus Phellos
Ulmus Americana
Ulmus alata

Celtis

Morus rubra
Phoradendron
Magnolia acuminata (x)
Magnolia tripetala
Magnolia macrophylla
Itea

Liquidambar
Platanus

Crataegus viridis
Crataegus spathulata
Prunus Americana
Cercis (x)
Amorpha fruticosa
Staphylea

Acer leucoderme
Acer Negundo
Aesculus Pavia
Aesculus parviflora
Rhamnus Caroliniana
Berchemia

Vitis rotundifolia
Gelsemium
Callicarpa
Clinopodium Georgianum
Bignonia

Tecoma

336 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Cephalanthus

Sambucus

The following occur in the plateau region (2A), and most of
them also farther north or south, but they are rare or absent in the
Tennessee Valley, which although farther north is lower and pre-
sumably warmer, in summer at least. Those which extend into
the state of Tennessee or beyond are indicated by the same sign
as before, and their absence from the valley may be due in most
cases to the fact that they do not thrive in rich soil.

Pinus palustris

Tsuga (x)

Smilax laurifolia

Myrica Carolinensis

Betula lenta (x)

Castanea pumila (x)
Nestronia

Magnolia (several species )
Asimina parviflora
Xanthorrhiza (x)
Calycanthus

Aronia

Toxicodendron pinnatum (x)
Toxicodendron quercifolium
Aesculus parviflora

Vitis rotundifolia

Stewartia (both species )
Ascyrum stans

Aralia spinosa (x)

Nyssa biflora

Azalea arborescens (x)
Rhododendron Catawbiense
Cholisma ligustrina (x)
Gaylussacia dumosa
Vaccinium virgatum
Vaccinium vacillans (x)
Vaccinium corymbosum (x)
Styrax Americana
Chionanthus

Gelsemium

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES 337

Viburnum acerifolium (x)

Viburnum cassinoides (x)

Lonicera sempervirens

Lonicera flava

Diervilla

For somewhat similar reasons the following species which are
known on both sides of the black belt are seldom or never seen in
that region unless in sandy spots which are not typical. ‘The con-
siderable proportion of evergreens among them indicates a par-
tiality to poor soils.

Pinus serotina

Smilax laurifolia

Smilax Walteri

Myrica Carolinensis

Salix humilis

Castanea dentata

Castanea pumila

Quercus coccinea

Magnolia acuminata

Magnolia tripetala

Magnolia macrophylla

Illicium

Xanthorrhiza

Calycanthus

Persea pubescens

Hydrangea quercifolia

Aronia

Crataegus uniflora

Toxicodendron pinnatum

Cyrilla

Ilex coriacea

Ilex glabra

Acer leucoderme

Ascyrum stans

Ascyrum hypericoides

Decodon

Clethra

Azalea nudiflora

Azalea viscosa

338 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Kalmia latifolia

Pieris nitida

Cholisma ligustrina
Oxydendrum

Gaylussacia dumosa
Gaylussacia frondosa
Polycodium stamineum
Vaccinium Myrsinites
Vaccinium virgatum
Vaccinium corymbosum
Symplocos

Styrax grandiflora

Styrax Americana
Osmanthus

Clinopodium Georgianum
Viburnum acerifolium
Viburnum semitomentosum
Viburnum nudum

Lastly may be considered those species which seem to be more
abundant in Alabama than in all the rest of the world. Probably
no other eastern state, except Florida and possibly North Caro-
lina, has so many woody plants of which this can be said. Two
very distinct shrubs, Neviusia Alabamensis and Croton Alabam-
ensis, are not known in any other state, though the former has
been seen within a few miles of Tennessee, and there is an un-
verified report of its occurrence in Missouri. Quite a number of
alleged species of Crataegus and a few of Prunus and Tilia are
known only from Alabama specimens, but so few people are able
to distinguish them that it is hardly safe to assert that they are
endemic.

The following shrubs and small trees are known in one or
more adjoining states, but seem to have their headquarters, so to
speak, in Alabama. Magnolia macrophylla, Illicium Floridanum,
Hydrangea quercifolia, Schmaltzia aromatica, Hypericum aureum,
Aesculus Pavia, and Aesculus parviflora.* Most of these are very

*Two of these were discovered by William Bartram, the first
botanical explorer in what is now Alabama, and most of the others
are mentioned in his book of Travels. All of them, as well as the Neviusia
and Croton, are found in Tuscaloosa County.

DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES 339

showy, and capable of cultivation, and almost any of them would
be far more appropriate for a state flower than any of the species
hitherto suggested for that distinction. Photographs of most of
them and distribution maps of three of them are reproduced in this
work.

The following are probably more abundant in Alabama than
in any other equal area, though this state may not contain a ma-
jority of their specimens: Hicoria myristicaeformis, Quercus Du-
randit, Ulmus serotina, Magnolia pyramidata, Cotinus, Acer leuco-
derme, Berchenua, Nyssa uniflora, Styrax grandifolia, Catalpa,
and Viburnum semitomentosum. More thorough explorations and
quantitative studies in this and adjoining states might reveal many
additional examples.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

Page 38. Another reason for the scarcity of cotton in the extreme
southern part of the state is that the copious late summer rains (see
Map 5, page 37) interfere with picking.

Page 73, line 20. For line read lime.

Page 83. The leaves of Yucca filamentosa are very tough, and are
often used in the rural districts for suspending meat or fish.

Page 213. The statement about the ash of Prunus being poor in silica is
based on a paper by W. D. Richardson in Science (II. 51:546-551) for May
28, 1920, in which it is stated that the ash of twigs of Prunus pumila, a shrub
growing on the dunes of Lake Michigan in Indiana, contains only 1.50% of
silica (as compared with 12.12 to over 60% in various other plants in the
same habitat). (The author neglected to state at what season the material
was collected, or the ratio of ash to the total weight of the plant.)

In order to see whether this was characteristic of other species of
Prunus, even as distantly related as the subgenus Padus, the writer collected
some leaves of Prunus serotina, growing in red loamy soil in Tuscaloosa,
early in August, 1928, and had them burned and the ash analyzed at the
University. The ash constituted 6.73% of the dry weight of the leaves, and
only 4.22% of it was insoluble in hot hydrochloric acid. This represents
approximately the amount of silica at this season. But it should be borne in
mind that the silica content of leaves generally increases markedly as the
season advances, and that it is greater in leaves than in wood of the same
tree.

Page 286. Mr. Ashe’s proposal to substitute Tsutsusi for Azalea
was published in a footnote in an article entitled “Suggestion for a
National Arboretum,” in the Journal of Forestry for May, 1921 (Vol.
19, but page number not given in the reprint).

A critical reader may notice some lack of uniformity in the styles of
type used for names of genera and species, and in the references to
literature and the abbreviations of authors’ names; most of which may
be ascribed to the length of time required to write and print a work of
this size and the writer's preoccupation with other things while this was
nearing completion. But these inconsistencies do not affect the accuracy
of the treatment, and they are seldom noticeable on any one page.

Tey .

- Yi fey ‘ae A ay ee at tim Satta en ae ae

: eCariae sy. i Oe Wt the Kipp has! pa
peels 121 See tees cham = ils Seek FOE
[ : ; ; a age’ :
¥

Tee ae te ea Pt
4 , « 5

tees
bas vient Canine

341
INDEX

This index includes technical and common names of plants, economic
properties and uses, names of persons, and some miscellaneous topics, but
not counties, rivers, etc. (for those are mentioned too often), or trivial mat-
ters which no one would look for. Technical names of families are printed
in small capitals, and those of genera and species (including synonyms) in
italics, while common names of plants are enclosed in quotations, to make it
easier to distinguish them from other common nouns.

As some plants are mentioned in some places by technical names only,
and in others by common names only, any one who wishes to find every-
thing that is said about a given species should bear both names in mind.
Where there is only one Alabama species in a genus, or the species of the
genus are few enough to be all discussed on two or three consecutive pages,
usually the generic name only is given in the index, so as to economize
space. Varieties are not indexed at all.

Where there are several different species in a genus, whose common
names consist of the same noun with different adjectives, such as red oak
and white oak, one should look for them in the index under the first word,
not the second.

Numbers in parentheses indicate pages where the topic in question is
mentioned indirectly, or under a different name. For example, under
fodder and forage the pages in parentheses refer to plants eaten by animals,
without using those particular words.

The entries in the index may be classified roughly as follows: Tech-
nical names of families (including synonyms) 83, common names of fam-
ilies 60, technical names of genera and species (including synonyms) 480,
common names of same 325, names of persons (who have worked in Ala-
bama or written about some of the plants discussed) 150 (including four
women), economic properties (including uses, products, diseases relieved by

certain plants, etc.) 285, and miscellaneous topics 95.

A
Acacia family, 217
ACERACEAE, 251-255, 326
Acer barbatum, 252
“ Carolinianum, 254
“ — Drummondii, 254
“ Floridanum, 252, 334
leucoderme 14, 157, 252-253,
330; 335; 337, 339
“ Negundo, 254-255, 330, 335
“rubrum, 156, 157, 254
“ Rugelu, 252
“ saccharinum, 154 156, 157, 251,
253
“Saccharum, 251-252, 329
Adelia, 157, 306, 334
AESCULACEAE, 255-258, 326
Aesculus austrina, 257
discolor, 257
Georgiana, 257
«glabra, 255
macrostachya, 257
“~~ octandra, 256
“parviflora, 257-258, 330, 335,
336, 338
= Pavia, 256, 331, 335338

Agricultural implements, 304 (see
also hoe, pitchfork, etc.)

Ailanthus, 226, 227

Albizzia, 217

“Alder”, 28, 106

Alkaloids, 309 (317)

Alnus, 27, 106-107

Alnus, 27, 106-107

Alumina in soil, 53

AMBROSIACEAE, 322, 326, 327

Amelanchier, 202

“American elm”, 143

Amorpha, 221-222, 331, 335

Ampelopsis, 264-265, 331, 334

AMYGDALACEAE, 212

ANACARDIACEAE, 176-178, 325

Andrews, Miss E. F., 13, 45, 321

Andromeda, 293 (see also Cholisma,
Pieris)

“Angelica”, 275

ANONACEAE, 176-178, 325

Anthodendron, 285

Anti-periodics, 307

Antipyritics, 101

APOCYNACEAE, 310, 326

Apple family, 200

342 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

AQUIFOLIACEAE, 243-249, 326
Aralia, 275-276, 331, 336
ARALIACEAE, 275-276, 326, 327
ARECACEAE, 78

Aristolochia, 158, 330
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE, 158, 325
Arizona, 227

Arkansas, 237

Armillaria, 109

Arnold Arboretum, 15, 20, 22, 131,

191, 205, 211

Aromatic plants, 39, 97, 166, 173,

176, 180-183, 225, 275, 312
Aronia, 201, 336, 337
Arrows, 88, 293
“Arrow-wood”, 317
Artificial limbs, 255
Arundinaria gigantea, 73

macrosperma, 19, 73-76, 330,

334
tecta, 76-77
Ascyrum, 270, 334, 336, 337
“Ash”, 21, 304-306
AShes Wie aWiee loe elonec0s 50s) 109:
LUGS 1345 W725 205. 2145) 215"
267, 268, 285, 302, 339
Asimina, 177-178, 336
Astringents, 106, 113, 185, 237, 238,
299
Avocado, 180
Azalea, 22, 285-288
“ —arborescens, 286, 328, 336
“canescens, 286, 287
“lutea, 288
nudiflora, 277, 287-288, 337
pruntfolia, 288
serrulata, 286
viscosa, 286, 337

B

Baccharis, 323, 331

Bacteria, 61, 154, 216

Bailey, be He 13

eile (Cy lies aSyeemWi7 ly eek
248, 263, 279, 298, 302

lel Abs el 7G)

Ralsam, 20

Bamboos, 72, 73

“Bamboo vine”, 85

Barksdale, J., 269

Barrels, 41, 63, 112 (See also Coop-
erage, Staves)

Bartram, Wm., 67, 73, 100, 173, 216;
257, 269, 278, 313, 338

“Bartram oak’, 131

“Basket oak’, 118

Baskets, 41, 76, 78, 100, 112, 118,
162, 166, 172, 266, 280, 282

“Basswood”, 14, 266

“Bastard pine’, 58

Bates, F. A., 13

Bats (baseball), 304

“Bay”, 25, 27 (See also Red, Sweet.
White)
“Bayberries”, Bayberry family, 97-

100
“Bay poplar”, 282
Bay rum, 180
Beadle, C. D., 13-14, 203-207
Beads, 227
Beams, 41, 112
“Bear-grass”, 83
Bedding, 41
“Beech”, 18, 54, 107
Bee-gums or hives, 172, 279
Beetles, bark, 18
Benzoin, 183-184, 330
Berchenmia, 259-260, 331, 334, 335,
339
Berckmans, P. J., 172
Berney, Saffold, 19
Berry; Ee W.. 255
Betts, H. S., 14, 43, 50, 52
Betula lenta, 106, 328, 336
nigra, 105-106, 335
BretuLaceak, 105-107, 325
Beverages, 182, 183, 268
Bigonia, 315, 335
BIGNONTIACEAE, 315-316, 326
Bilmore Herbarium, (13, 14, 16),
203, 206
“Birch”, 18, 105-106
Birch family, 105
“Bird-eye”, 311
Birds, 69) 150; 162), 183 209smeies
216, 227, 246
Bitter bark, 226, 276
“Bittersweet”, false, 250
“Black alder’, 248
“Blackberries”, 197-198
“Black birch’, 106
“Black cypress”, 61, 65
Biack drink, 246
“Black gum’, 25, 279, 280
“Blackjack oak’, 126, 129
“Black locust”, 223
“Black oak’, 124
“Black pine”, 51
“Black sumac”, 237
“Black walnut”, 14,
“Black willow”, 101
“Bladdernut”, 251
Blinds, 41, 63

(22), 87, 145

INDEX 343

Blood medicine 106

“Blue ash” 305

“Blueberreies”, 297

“Blue-jack” (oak), 133

Boats, 62, 67, 68 (See also Canoes,
Ships)

Bobbins, 107

ehotsydarc.. 15]

Book-cases, 112

Boot and shoe findings, 299

Borders, plants used for, 104, 178,
249

Borrichia, 323, 331

Borya, 306

Bowls, 282

Bows, 88

“Box elder”, 254

Boxes, wood used for, 48, 101, 102,
LO7, 1435 1485) 171. 172) 193)
253 255, 266, 282

Boynton, C. L., 14, 146, 192

a ee 222

Bradleia, 222

Bray, W. Jy., 154

Bread-boards, 266

“Bridal wreath”, 194

Bridges, bridge timbers, 39, 112

“Brier-berry”, 197

Britton, N. L., 203, 204

Broom-handles, 166, 253

Brooms, 182, 249

Broussonetia, 151, (156), 226, 227

Brown, Addison, 203, 204

~ BE, ABE ae

Brunnichia, 159, 331, 334

Brush, W. D., 14, 87, 153, 266

Brushes, 79

Brush handles, 107, 244

Buckets, 62, 67, 68

“Buckeyes”, 255-258

Buckley, S: B., 9 14. 115: 184, 199;
209, 234, 247, 259, 301, 318

Buckthorn family, 258

Buckwheat family, 158

Buddleia, 310

Buggy shafts, 88

Building materials, 78 (See also In-
terior finish, Shingles, etc.)

“Bullace”’, 263

Bumelia, 300, 301, 333

Bunker, P. S., 3, (89), 225

Bush, B. F., 14, 266, 267

Butchers’ blocks, 153

Butneria, 179

Buttercup family, 178

“Butternut”, 88

“Button-bush”, 317

“Buttonwood”, 153
e

Cabell, P. H., 14

Cabinet-making, cabinet work, 87,

151, 193, 215, 244, 254, 268

CAESALPINIACEAE, 217-220, 325

Caffeine, 20, 246

Calamintha, 312, 313

Caldwell, G. W., 14, 86

“Calico bush”, 289

California, 161, 227, 327

CALYCANTHACEAE, 179-180, 325

Calycanthus, 179-180, 336, 337

Camellia family, 268

Camphor, 180

Canada, 205, 274, 278, 333

“Canada plum”, 213

Canby, W. M., 273

Candles (bayberry), 97, 100

“Cane”, cane-brakes, 73, 75

Canker, chestnut, 110

Canoes, 105, 182

CAPRIFOLIACEAE, 317-322, 326

CARDUACEAE, 322

Carlomohria, 303

Carpinus, 104, 335

“Carolina poplar”, 103

Carriages, 172, 304

Cars (railroad), 41

Carving, wood, 244

Car-window observations, 10, 269

,

283
Cary.2G. Aes 14
Carya, 90-92

Caspari, C. E., 16

“Cassena”, 244, 246

Castanea dentata, 108-110, 329, 337
pumila, 111, 336, 337

Catalpa, 314, 316, 331, 339

Catarrh, 192

“Catawba”, 316

Caterpillars, 316

Cathartics, 88

Cattle,((86) 75179: 215. (218); 240:

244, 256, 257, 289, 291

Ceanothus, 260-261, 332

“Cedars”, 16, 67, 68

CELASTRACEAE, 249-250, 326

Celastrus, 250

Celtis, 148-150, 335

Cephalanthus, 317, 335

Ceratiola, 231

Cercis, 217-218, 331, 336

Cerothamnus, 97

Chairs, 107

Chamaecyparis, 67, 332

344 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

“Chaneyberry”, 227

Chapman, A. W., 30, 109, 203, 289

Charcoal, 42, 43, 67, 101, 106, 116,
166 254

“Chaste-tree”’, 312

“Cherokee rose’, 199

“Cherries”, 212, 214, 216

“Cherry birch”, 106

Chesnut, V. K., 15, 20, 246

Chess-men, 244

“Chestnut”, 13, 108-110

Chestnut blight or canker, 110

“Chestnut oaks”, 116-119

“Chestnut white oak” 118

Chewing gum, 192

“Chickasaw plum”, 214

Chimneys (stick), 41

China, 152, 199, 231

“Chinaberry”, 227, 250

“China tree’, 227

“Chinese tallow tree’, 231

“Chinese varnish tree”, 268

“Chinquapin”, 111

“Chinquapin oak”, 118

Chionanthus, 307, 336

Chittenden, A. K., 15, 193

“Chittimwood”, 232

Chocolate, 268

“Choke-berry”, 201

“Choke-cherries”, 212

Cholisma, 293, 336, 338

Christmas trees, 60

Chrysobalanus, 212, 332

Chrysoma, 323, 331

Churns, 62, 68

Cigar boxes, 282

“Cigar tree”, 316

Cinnamon, 180

“Circassian walnut’, 382

Cissus, 264

Citrous fruits, 225

Cladrastis, 220-221

Clanton, S. W., 15

Clethra, 285, 334, 337

CLETHRACEAE, 285, 326

“Cliff pine’, 58

Cliftonia, 242-243, 332

Clinopodium, 312-313, 335, 338

Clothes-chests, 68

Clothespins, 107

Cocks, R. S., 15, 88, 91, 94, 103, 110,
116, 118, 140, 148, 167 169,
180, 201, 202, 213, 214, 226,
239, 241, 247." 253, 256, 267,
268 279, 300, 302, 304, 305,
307 316, 318

Coffee, 317
Cogs (wooden), 104
Collins, J. F., 110
Columns, 39, 161, 171, 282
Commission of Forestry (Ala.), co-
operation with, 3
ComposITak, 322-323
CONIFERAE, 39-72, 325
Conradina, 313-314, 331
Cooper, R. E., 22, 43
Cooperage, (41), 112, 143, 193 (sce
also Barrels, Staves)
“Coral-berry”, 320
Cork, 107,, 230
CorNACEAE, 276-284, 326
Cornus alternifolia, 278, 330, 323
“ Amonum, 278, 279
“asperifolia, 279
“ floriaa, 157, 276-278
“stricta, 278-279, 331
CoryLaceAk, 104-105, 325
Corylus, 104-105, 329
Corypha, 79
Cotinus, (14, 19), 232-237, 339
Cotton baskets, 112
Cotton gins, 41, 115, 172, 280, 304
Cotton presses, 112
“Cottonwood”, 22, 102, 303, 314
Cough medicine, 215
Coulter, J. M., 203
“Cow-itch”, 315
“Cow oak’, 118
Crataegus, 13, 14, 25, 202-211, 327,
338
aestivalis, 211
“ apiifolia, 210, 331
arborescens, 209
armentalis, 211
“ Crus-Galli, 210
“~~ Marshall, 210
“ Michaux, 210-211, 333
“Mohri, 210
“ rufula, 211
“spathulata, 209-210, 330, 335
“uniflora, 211, 337
“ wiridis, 209 331’ 335
Crates; 48, 54, 101, 105, 4627 a7
256, 266, 282
Creosote, 41, 43, 48
“Crepe myrtle”, 275
Cribs, 41
Cross-ties, 41, 48, 62, 66-68, 87, 108,
112, 113, 116, 172-173) 225
280
“Cross-vine”, 315
Croton, 19, 228-230, 338

INDEX 345

Crowberry family, 231
Crowfoot family, 178
“Cucumber trees”, 167-171
Cuno, John B., 15, 276, 299
CupPuLiFEerAk, 107-142, 325, 327
“Currants”, 190

Custard-apple family, 176
Cynoxylon, 276

“Cypress”, 16, 18, 24, 25, 61-67, 292
Cyrilla, 38, 241-242, 334, 337
CyrILLACcEAE, 241-243, 326

D

“Dahoon holly”, 244

Dams, destruction of vegetation by,
(43), 63; 78, 220, 250, 252;
253, 264, 272, 283, 289, 305

Darbya 157

Daubentonia, 18, 28, 223

Decodon, 274, 337

Decorations, decorative plants, 14, 41,
ZS, 81, 83;-85; 86, 154, 162,
192 243, 244, 246, (250, 276),
287, 291, 295

Decumaria, 188, 190

“Deer-berry’”, 295

“Deer plum’, 212

Delaware, 21

Denny, Andrew, 9, 10, 15, 85, 158,
167, 302, 304, 318

“Dewberries’”’, 197-198

Diaphoretics, 173

Diarrhoea, 106

Diervilla, 322, 329, 337

Diospyros, 157, 299-300

Dirca, 274, 278, 330, 333

Diseases of trees, 109, 111, 253

Distillation of wood, 43

Divining rods, 191

“Dogwood”, 15, 27, 276-278, 287

‘Mollar leaf oak’, 129

Doors, 41, 63

DRACAENACEAE, 82

DrupackEak, 212-216, 325

Dunes, 60, (83), 84, 137, 159, 231,
QOS Oo wOe2. Sear Ooo

Durable wood 39, 62, 87, 104, 108,
WIZ 1S tol S52) AS22235
232, 316

“Dutchman’s pipe”, 158

“Dwarf live oak’, 121

“Dwarf palmetto”, 78

“Dwarf willow’, 102

Dyes, 22, 87, 88, 106, 107, 124, 133,
151079. 220;, 2822237. 289)
254, 260, 274, 299, 301, 305,
Se SeZ

Dysentery, 113

5;

Harle,- Fo-s., 9; 10; 15.782) 157-176,
177, 184, 194, 198, 210 226,
241, 248, 263, 279, 286, 289,
293, 298, 302, 312

Earthworms, 69, 108, 109, 116, 119,
160, 231, 289, 298

EBENACEAE, 299-300, 326

Ebony family, 299

Edible fruits, 148, 151, 176, 177, 194,
197, 200-202, 212-215, 218,
232, 258, 260-263, 294, 299,
300, 318

Edible nuts, 87-91, 105, 107, 109, 111-
113-18

Eggleston, W. W., 204

Egg-plant, 314

Elastic wood, 88, 112, 304

“Elbow bush’, 317

“Elder”, 317

Elm family, 143

“Elms”, 143-146

Emetics, 224, 246

EMPETRACEAE, 231, 325

Endogens, 86

Endothia, 109

Engler, A., 29

ERICACEAE, 285-294, 326, 327

Euonymus, 249-250

EUPHORBIACEAE, 228-231, 325

Evergreen decorations, 14, 86

Evolution, (23, 24) (See also Muta-
tion)

Evonymus, 249

Excelsior, 42, 48, 101, 102, 256, 266

Exogens, 86

F

FABACEAE, 220

Facaceak, 107

Fagara, 225

Fagus, 107-108, 330

“False bittersweet”, 250

“False indigo”, 221

Fans (palm-leaf), 78

Faucets, 107

Febrifuges, 101

Felloes, 112, 151

Fences, 41, 54, 62

Fence-palings, 41, 62, 67, 172

Fence-posts (See Posts)

Fence-rails, 41, 68, 87, 108, 122, 166,
182

346 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Fernald, M. L., 107, 204

Fernow, B. E., 15 18 20 43 63

Ferruginous soils (53), 92, 122, 124,
129, (255)

Fevers, 276, 307

Fiber, 42, 72, 78, 79, 266, (339)

“Filberts’, 104

Fire, effects of (miscellaneous), 13,
Lie POST 79. 12), W228:
278, 287, 300, 311

Fire, species sensitive to, 54, 58, 60,
63-65, 69, 70, 73, 83, 86, 105,

107, 121, 139, 162, 168, 176-
179, 185, 186, 190, 191, 202,
203; 213. 215, 216, 224, 226,

231, 238, 240, 244, 246, 256,
257 259, 260, 263, 265, 266,
274, 275, 278, 289, 293, 295,
298, 300, 301, 306, 307, 309,
Slomolowslomacl

Fire, species tolerant of, 13, 43, 45,
53, 66, 79, 84, 99, 109, 116,
POS 126.9 129, 9237, 240,249)
261

Firmiana, 268

Fish-bait, 316

Fish poison, 256

Fishing poles, 73

Fixtures, 266

Flavoring, leaves used for, 181, 182

Fletcher, W. F., 15, 299

Floats, 282

Flooring, 41, 107, 252, 282

Florida, 42, 45, 60, 79, 100, 103, 119,
12%. °135;,.176, 217,°223;)230,
231. 261, 291, 292,327

Flower urns and vases, 62, 66

Fluctuation of water, 25, 62, 66, 67,
101, 103, 106, 115, 146, 166,
253, 280, 282, 283, 306, 317

Fodder or forage, 76, (78, 79, 86,
113), 116,: (118), 220; 240)
244, 257, 301

Food plants, 72, 78, 79, 87, 158, 220,
228, 322 (See also Edible)

Foot-logs, 39

Forage (see Fodder)

Forestiera, 306

“FRorked-leaf blackjack”, 126

Forsteroma, cl0

Fossil pine cones, 55

Poster, He Diss 116

Fothergilla, 192

“Rox-berry”, 311

Fragrant flowers, 179, 200, 223, 227,
268, 285 286

Fraximus 21, 154, 156, 304-306
“Americana, 156, 157, 304-305,
330
“ Biltmoreana, 304
* Caroliniana, 305, 334
“lanceolata, 305
“— Pennsylvanica, 304
“ platycarpa, 305
“ quadrangulata, 305-306
Freezers, 62
“French mulberry”, 311
Fried elder flowers, 317
“Fringe-tree’, 307
Frost-bite, 192
“Frost grape”, 262
Frothingham, E. H., 15, 60
Fuel, wood used for, 41, 42, 52, 58,
88, 102, 105, 106, (108), 113,
115 122° 126, 129 iSsoeelso
15 166; 1725 N92 22ers
243, 269, 305
Fungi (in soil), 108
Furniture, 63, 68, 87, 105, 106, 108,

Lt2> 122;; 143), 153) deze
193, 252, 253, 256, 266;02e2.
304

G

“Gallberry”, 30, 249

Gattinger, A., 237

Gaylussacia, 294, 295, 332, 333, 336,
338

Gelsemine, 309

Gelsemium, 309-310, 335, 336

Geobalanus, 212

Georgia, 16, 47, 60, 109, 119, 153,
157, 172, 203, 220, 2259e2ae.
271, 288, 291, 292, 300, 315

Gledits,(ch)ia, 19, 154, 157, 218-220

“Globe-flower”’, 317

Glyptostrobus, 66

Golf sticks, 88

“Gooseberries”, 190, 296-297

Gooseberry family, 190

“Gopher-apple”, 212

“Gopher-berry”, 294

Gordonia, 268-269, 332

Grafting, 201, 213

Graham, J. Y., (169)

GRAMINEAE, 72-77, 325

“Grandsir graybeard”, 307

Grant, © Ve,-15)240

“Grapes”, 261-263

Grass family, 72

Gravatt, G. F., 110

Graves, A. H., 110

Gray, Asa, 16, 292

INDEX 347

“Graybeard”, 307

Grazing, 73 (See also Forage)

Greeley, W. B., 16

“Greenbrier”, 84

Greene, E. L., 16, 203, 238, 293

Greenhouse frames, 63

Griggs, R. F., 152, (289)

Grossularia, 190

GROSSULARIACEAE, 190-191, 325

“Ground oak,” 212

“Groundsel tree”, 323

Gum (from trees), 43, 192, 300

“Gum” trees (See
Sweet)

Gunpowder, 67, 101

Gun-stocks, 87, 254

Gutters (wooden), 63

H

Hackberry, 148

Halesia, 303-304, 330, 334
Half-tone blocks, re

iain 16: 50, 63, 67
2 eee eee 325
Hamamelis, 27, 191

Hames, 243

Hammond, Harry, 73, 109

Handles, 88, 104, 107, 171, 244, 304,

305

Hansen, A. A., 15, 240

anpison, I “G..-16,° 61, 106, 158,
160, 185, 186, 191, 192, 105,
Pie 224. 248525106253, 270.

271, 286, 288, 319, 320, 322
Hardwoods, 86

“Hard maples’, 251-253
Hare, H. A., 16
Harris. ji. 1... 17, 43

atebs ©. 1. -17,-90
72 IN ERE

Hats (palm-leaf), 78
att, W. K., 15
“Haws”, hawthorns, 202
“Hazel-nuts”, 104-105
Heart-leaf family, 158
Heath family, 285
Hedges, 60, 68,
306

Heller, A. A., 204
“Hemlock”, 15, 17, 21, 60
Hemorrhage, 124

Henkel, Alice, 17, (124-125)
Henna, 274

“Hickories”, 17, 88-96

Black, Red,

104,151, 216, 218,

Hicoria alba, 92
aquatica, 91, 334
“ Ashei, 94
“ Carolinae-septentrionalis, 14, 94
“ cordiformis, 91
glabra, 92
lacintosa, 94
microcarpa, 94
minima, 91
“ myristicaeformis, 19, 90, 339
“ ovalis, 93-96
ovata, 91-92, 154, 156, 329, 334
pallida, 94
o seecan 19. (22). 90
“High-bush huckleberry”, 298
“High- ground willow oak’, 133
Hilgard, E. W., 109
Eine Se 245
HIPPOCASTANACEAE, 255
Hitchcock, A. S., 24
Hodges, R. S., 40, 42, 120
Hodson, E. R., 110
Hoe-handles, 171
“Hog plum”, 214
Hogs, 43, 79, 113, 116, 118
“Holly”, Holly family, 243
Holroyd, H. B., 18, 282
Honey, 2012215, 216.218 227, 24.
243, 248, 249, 254, 263, 266,
282, 289, 293, 309, 317
“Honey locust’, 218
“Honeysuckles”, 13, 285, 320
Honeysuckle family, 317
Hoops, 88, 105, 112, 182
Hopkins, ADS lSee505 52,
“Hornbeam’’, 104
Horse- chestnut family, 255
Horse medicine, 307
“Horse-sugar”’, 301
“Horse-wicky”’, 292
Houses, 68, 112 (See also Lumber,
etc. )
Howell, A. H..,
Hubs, 218, 279
“Huckleberries”, 294-298
Huckleberry family, 294
“Huisache”, 217
Humus, 69, 101, 107, 173, 179
“Hurrah bush”, 292
Hybrids, 20, 22, 90, 102, 103, 111,
Sail ST Ss es 0
205, 208, 260, 288
Hydrangea arborescens, 21, 185, 330
cinerea, 185, 186, 329
quercifolia, 186-189, 331, 337,
338
radiata, 185, 186

(50), 82, 247

HYPERICACEAE, 270-273, 326

348 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Hypericum aspalathoides, 272, 332
“~ aureum, 271, 329 3,38
“ cistifoliwm, 273
“ fasciculatum, 272, 332

galioides, 272

“~ myrtifolium, 271, 332

“ nudiflorum, 273

“ opacum, 273, 332

“ prolificum, 271

“ sphaerocarpum, 273

“ turgidum, 273

I

Ilex ambigua, 247

“ Beadlei, 248

“ Caroliniana, 247

“ Cassine, 244, 246, 332

“ Dahoon, 244

“ decidua, 247, 331

“glabra, 30, 38, 249, 250, 333;

337

“~ longipes, 247

“lucida, 248

“mollis, 248

“ monticola, 248

“ myrtifolia, 244, 332

“ opaca, 243-244

“ verticillata, 248

“~ gomitoria, 20, 246-247, 333
Illicium, 38, 173-176, 334, 337, 338

Illinois, 114

Tll-scented flowers, 173, 226

Indians, 76, 118, 151, 182, 214, 246,
316

“Indian bean’, 316

“Indian cherry”, 259

“Indian currant”, 311, 320

“Indigo”, false, 221

Ink, 254

“Inkberry”, 30, 249

Inlaying, 244

Insects, 108, 227

Insulator pins, 151, 223

Interior finish, 54, 62, 67, 108, 112,
148, 153, 193, 215, 244, 255,
282, 299, 304

Interlaced grain (wood), 249, 282

Irish potato, 314

Iron in soil, 53 (See also Ferru-
ginous )

Ironing boards, 266

“Ironwood”, 104

Itea, 186, 188, 335

Iva, 322, 331

“Tyy”, 289; poison, 15, 240

J

Jelly, 201, 202, 215, 262, 296, 317
Jenkins, L. W., 18

“Jessamine”, yellow, 309
Johnson, J: BZ) bs Cae

Johnstone, G. R., 14

Joists, 41

Jones, W. B., 49, 59, 82, 195, (196),
228, 230, 290

“Judas trees”, 217

JUGLANDACEAE, 87-96, 325

Juglans, 22, 87-88, 329, 334

Juglone, 22

“Jujube”, 260

“June-berry’, 202

“Juniper”, 67

Juniperus, 19, 25, 68-72

K

Kalmia, 27, 176, 289-291, 295, 331,
332, 338

Kellogg, R. S., 18, 276

Kindling, 42, (52)

Knees, sypress, 62, 63, 65

Kraunhia, 222

L

LABIATAE, 312-314, 326, 327
Lacquer, 239

Ladders, 88
Lagerstroemia, 275
Lampblack, 43, 67
Lantana, 312
LAURACEAE, 180-184, 325
“Laurel”, 173, 180, 289
“Taurel cherry”, 216
Laurel family, 180
“Taurel oak’, 139
Laurocerasus, 212, 216
“Lavender”, 312
Lawn-grass, 72
“Leatherwood”, 274
Leavenworth, M. C., 18
LEGUMINOSAE, 216, 220-224, 325
“Leopard oak”, 124
Leptocarya, 216
Leucobalanus, 112
Leucothoe, 291-292, 332
Levers, 104, 112
Lightning, 45, 89
Lightwood, 42, 52
“Lilac”, 304

Littaceak, 82-83, 325
Lily family, 82

INDEX 349

“Lin, linden’, 299

Linden family, 266

Lindera, 183

Liniments, 191

Liquidambar, 15, 20, 22,
193, 335

Liriodendron, 13, 172-173

“Live oak”, 119, 121

loydeis: J, 272

“Loblolly”, 161

“Loblolly bay”, 268

“Toblolly pine’, 13, 21, 48

“Locust”, 218-220, 223-224

LOGANIACEAE, 309, 326

Log cabins, 41, 172

“Tombardy poplar’, 103

Long, W. H., 109

Long Island, (67), 100, 257

“Long-leaf pine, 13, 17, 19, 21, 22,
24, 39-46, 126

Lonicera, 13, 320-321, 329, 337

Loosestrife family, 274

LorANTHACEAE, 154-157, 325

Louisiana, 47, 48, 62, 99

Lumber, 18, 20, 25, 39, (48), 52, 60,
100s e1S> \@S2=193)5n" 212;
(AnD) ae

Lycium, 314, 331

Lyonia (See Pieris )

Lythraceae, 274-275, 326

M

McAtee, W. L., 18, 240
“Macartney rose’, 200
Maclura, 151
“Magnolia”, 54, 161-163; family, 161
Magnolia, 161- 172, 336
acuminata, 171, 330, 335, 337
“ cordata, 13, 171-172
“ foetida, 161, 164
“ Fraseri, 167, 333
glauca, (27), 45, 164-166, 334
“ grandiflora, (54), 161-165, 333
“macrophylla, 168-171, 176, 331,
55D) (907; 355
“ pyramidata, 167, 331‘ 333, 334,
339
“ tripetala, 167, 330, 335, 337
“ Umbrella, 167
Virginiana, 164
MAGNOLIACEAE, 161-176, 325
Mahogany family, 227
MatackEaeE, 200
Malus, 200-201, 330
Maple family, 251
“Maples”, 18, 251-254
Maple sugar, 251

156, 192-

Marsh; C. D.,. 18: 223

Marshall, R. P., 110

Maryland, 21, 58

Massachusetts, 61,

Masts, 39

“Mate”, 246

“Matrimony vine”, 314

Mats, 101, 177

Mattoon, W. R.,

Mattresses, 79

Mauls, 119, 279

Maxwell, Hu, 16-18, 43, 50, 52, 63,
67, 105 107

“Meadow-sweet’’, 194

Medicinal plants, 13-21, 60, 78, 79,
83, (88), 91, 97, 99, 101, 104,
(106), 107, (109), 124, 145,
1545S 166" 1672173) 177
179, 182, 183, 186, 191, 192,
197212 AY. ZIG 225-228:
232, 237, 238, 240, 244, 249,
255, 258, 260, 265, 274-276,
293, 299: S04, 307, 312 316.
322

Melanobalanus, 112

Melia, 227-228, 250

MELIACEAE, 227-228, 325

Menziesia, 289

Metcalf, H., 110

Mexico, 82, 203, 227

Mezereum family, 274

Michaux, A., 171; F. A., 68, 301

Michigan, 60

Milky juice, 151, 228, 310

Miller, E. R., 14

Mill-work, 172, 266

“Mimosa”, 217

MimosackaE, 217, 325

Mine props, 41

Mint family, 312

Mississippi, 43, 47, 76, 100, 109, 119,
161; 163; 1177, 183, 192, 193.
220, 266

Missouri, 237

“Mistletoe”, 154, 155

“Mock orange’, (151), 184, 216

Mohr, Charles, 9-12, 19-21, 29-31,
43, 47, 50-54, 60, 61, 69, 74,
76, 82-91, 94, 97-106, 115, 116,
119, 121, 131-137, 146-152,
157161) V671725 176, 179%
180, 183-185, 188-192, 195-
202, 206, 209-216, 222-231,
235, 239, 243, 244, 247-267,
270-275, 279, 286-288, 292-
306, 310-323

(100)

18, 43, 47, 52, 63

350 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Mohrodendron, 303
Moldings, 266
“Moosewood”, 274
Moraceak, 151-152, 325
Morella, 97
Morus, 152, 330, 335
Moths, 68
“Mountain laurel’, 289
“Mountain oak”, 116
Mouse-traps, 107
Mucilaginous bark, 145
“Mulberry”, 151, 152
Mulching, 41
“Muscadines”, 261, 263
Muscadinia, 261
Musical instruments, 87, 282
Mutations, 208
Myrica Carolinensis, 98-100, 334, 336,
337
“ cerifera, 97-99, 333
‘ inodora, 98, 100, 332
“pumila, 98, 99
Myricaceak, 97-100, 325
“Myrtles”, 97-100

N

“Narrow-leaved blackjack”, 133

Nash, G. V., 178

Naval stores, 39, 43

“Needle palm”, 81

Negroes, 52, 183, 227, 228

Negundo, 254

Neillia, 194

Nellis, J. €.,; 20, 110

NEPETACEAE, 312

Nesaea (See Decodon)

Nestronia, 157, 336

Neuralgia, 99

Nevius, R. D., 16, 195

Neviusia, 16, 19, 20, 194-196, 329,
338

“New Jersey tea’, 260

New York, 60, 67, 109, 110, 131,
226, 278

“Nigger pine’, 58

Nightshare family, 314

“Nine-bark’”, 194

Nitrogen (in soil), 101, 216

North Carolina, 20, 106, 109, 157,
172. 246. 322

Northern books, 29-30, (122,
227, 249

“Northern pawpaw”, 177

“Northern prickly ash”, 225, 275

“Northern red oak’, 124

Novelties (wooden), 266

“Nutmeg hickory”, 90

125),

Nyssa aquatica, 232
“ biflora, 156, 157, 280-281, 334,
336
“multiflora, 279
“sylvatica, 154, 156, 157, 279-
280
“ uniflora, 18, 62, 157, 282-284,
331, 334, 339

O

Oak family, 107-142

“Oaks”, 14, 16, 25, 111-142

Oars, 304

“October flower”, 159

Odorous wood, 68

Officinal drugs, 79, (113), 134,
(145), 182; 191: 2153225286)
309

“Ohio buckeye”, 255

“Old field pine’, 48

Olea Americana, 307

OLEACEAE, 304-309, 326

Olive family, 304

Oils, vegetable, 43, 68, 78, 87, 106,
107, 231

Oklahoma, 151, 237

“Opopanax”, 217

Opulaster, 194

Ornamental plants, 39, 52, 54, 58, 60,
(61), (66), 67, 68, 72, 73, 78,
82, 83, 92, 97, 100, 103-108,
(112), 114, 151, 152, 158, 164,
167, 168, ..171,. G23 =e
178, 184-186, 188, 190-192,
194, (195), 198-202, 209, 210,
212. 213: 215-2118. 220 hee22—
225, 227, 228. 23, 2oameeaos
246, 2 250, 251. 2aaeene.
264, 265, 268, 269, 271, 274-
276, 279, 285, 286, 288, 289,
292, 293, 296, 297, 301-304,
307, 309-312, 314-323

“Osage orange”, 151

Osmanthus, 38, 307-309, 334-338

Ostrya, 104, 330

“Overcup oak”, 114

Owen, Thos. M., 17, 19

Oxydendrum, 293, 338

Ox-yokes, 105, 153, 279, 255

i

Padus, 212, (214-216), 339
Palings, 41. 62, 67. 172
PatMag, 78-82, 325
Palmer, E. J., 20, 205
Palm family, 78

INDEX 351

“Palo verde’, 220

“Papaw, papaya”, 177

Ener 998 (O05 795 1025 151
(172), 255

“Paper mulberry”, 151
Papyrius, 151, 156 (226)
Paraguay tea, 246
Parasites, 154
Parkinsonia, 220

“Parsley haw’, 210
Parthenocissus, 265

Patent medicines, 79, 307
Paterson, J. H., 114
Paulownia, 314

Paving blocks, 18, 41
“Pawpaw”, 177-178

Pea family, 220

Pea-vine supports, 182
“Pecan’’, 22, 88-90
Pellagra, 179

Pencil wood, 22, 68
Pennell, F. W., 313
“Pepperidge”, 279
Perfume, 312, 313

Persea, 180-181, 333, 334, 337
“Persimmon”, 15, 299
Peters. b. Mi. 9\-20) 6, 158
Philadelphus, 184, 330
Phoradendron, 154-157, 335
Phosphatic soils, 119, 133
Physocarpus, 194

Piano keys, 266

Pickles (butternut), 88
Picture frames, 266
Pieris, 292, 332, 334, 338
Piles (wooden), 39, 62, 68
“Pillenterry”, 225

“Pin oak’, 115

PInaceak, 39-72

Pinchot, Gifford. 20
“Pines”, 13-16, 18-20, 24, 39-60
Pine straw, 41

Pine wool, 42

Pinus australis, 18, 39
“ Caribaea, 18, 47
“ clausa, 19, 60, 70, 331
“ Cubensis, 46
“ echinata, 18, 52-54, 330
“ Elliottti, 18, 46-48, 332
“glabra, 19, 54-57, 333
“mops, 58
“lutea, 39
“ mitis, 52

palustris, (13), 17, 18, 38-46,
166, 334, 336

“ serotina, 20, 51-52, 333, 337

Pins Taeda, 13, 21, 48-51, 99, 315
“ Virgiuana, 21, 57-60, 70, 329

“Pipe vine”, 158

Pitchforks, 305

Planera, 146, 306, 334

Planes, 107

Plane-tree family, 152

Plaster hair, 79

PLATANACEAE, 152-154, 325

Platanus, 153-154, 156, 331

Plum family, 212

Selimss0225 212-214

PoAcEAE, 72

Pocosin of) Pike (Co, * 1/7. 134-136;
140, 180, 216, 300

“Poison dogwood, elder, or sumac”,
15, 18, 239

“Poison ivy’, 15, 240

“Poison oak’, 240

Poisonous plants, 14, 15, 18, (179,
eZ), ZS iG, 220, Z2s Ay
Dal 2320 259-241 e256) 289)
291, 309, 310, 314

Poles, 39, 48, 62, 65, 67, 68, 108, 182-
183, 223

Rolland yee 120 5195

Polycodium, 296-297, 329, 330, 338

PoLyGoNAcEAE, 158-160, 325, 327

Polygonella, 159-160, 325, 327

PomackEak, 200-211, 325

~ondscypuess.25 00272

“Pond pine’, 51

“Pop-ash”, 305

Pop-guns, 73, 227, 317

SPoplanszaels O25 0S iZ2

Populus, 22, 102-103, 156, 157, 330,
335

Porch columns, (39), 161, 171, 282

Borchers Haves 20 679260

“Possumwood”, 303

BOStmOdkcstn leleo= ime

ROSES 20527 OZ OCHE Sym As
1038S IS 45 Sd 522 182.
PFS 22355 202

Potash, potassic soils, 53, 87, 101,
1155 VSie257,

Poultices, 122, 238

Power, F. B., 20, 246

Pragmatism, 25

“Prairie plum’, 213

Prantl, K., 29

Prentiss, A. N., 21, 60

Freserves, 201, 213, 214, 317

pericklyeashees 225275

“Pride of India”, 227

Prinos, 248-249

Privet brakes, 229

352 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Pr unus, 22, 212-216, 338, 339
Alabamensis, 20, 216, 328
“ Americana, 213, 330, 335
“angustifolia, 156, 214
“australis, 14, 215
“ Caroliniana, 156, 216, 334
“ Chicasa, 214
“ Cuthbertii, 216
“ hortulana, 213
injucunda, 214
* Tanata, 213
“ mitis, 14, 214
“pumila, 339
“ serotina, 214-216, 339
“ —umbellata, 214
Frussic acid, 215
Ptelea, 225, 226, 251, 330
Pulmonary complaints,
ONS
Pulp (for paper),
255

(39),
22, 58, 60, 172,

109,

Pulse family, 220
Fumps, pump logs, 58, 161, 171, 172,
282
“Pussy-willows”, 102
Pyrularia, 157
Pyrus, 200, 201
Pyrophobic plants, 246
(See Fire)

Q

Quassia family, 226
Quercitron bark, 124
Quercus 21, 111-142
acuminata, 118

«alba, 112-113, 117, 335
aquatica, 137
“ — Arkansana, 17, 20, 133-137
austrina, 116
“ Bernardiensis, 22, 117
“borealis, 124, 330
“ Boyntoni, 14, 113
“ brevifolia, 133
“ breviloba, 115
“ Caput-rivuli, 133, 135
“Castanea, 118
Catesbaei, 126-129, 133, 333
“cinerea, 132-133, 134
“ coccinea, 125-126, 330, 337
“digitata, 122
“ Durandu, 14, 19, 115, 116, 329,

339

“~~ falcata, 122, 124, 125, 335
ferruginea, 129
“ geminata, 121, 332
“heterophylla, 19, 131
“ laurifolia, 16, 139- 141, 156, 334

Quercus lyrata, 114-115, 330, 334
macrocarpa, 114
“Margaretta, 113, 114, 333
“ Marylandica, 129-131, 156
“ Michauxti, 118-119, 334, 335
“minima, 121, 332
“minor, 113
“montana, 22, 113, 116-117, 329
“— Muhlenbergti, 118
“ myrtifolia, 137, 139
“ migra, 129, 137, 155-156, 335
“ Nuttallii, 131
“obtusa, 128, 156
“ obtusiloba, 113
“ Pagoda (pagodaefolia) , 122, 329
“ Phellos, 16, 137, 140, 154, 156,
330, 335
“ prinoides, 118
* Prinus, 116, 118
“ rhombica, 138
“ rubra, 122, 124
“ Saulei, 117
“ Schneckii, 125, 126, 156
“ Shumardii, 125
“stellata, 22, 113, 117
“ Texana, 125, 131
“tinctoria, 124
“ triloba, 122
“ velutina, 123-125, 329
“~ uirens, 119, 121
“ Virgimana, 119-121
Quinine, 317

R

Rafters, 41

Ragweed family, 322

Rainfall, 36-38, 47, 332

RANUNCULACEAE, 178-179, 325, 327

Rapid growth, 151, 226, 227

“Raspberry”, 198

“Rattan vine’, 259

“Red bay’, 180, 181, 268

Rattlesnakes, 306

“Redbud”, 217, 254

“Red cedar”, 16, 20, 22, 68

“Red cypress’, 61

“Red elm’, 143

“Red gum”, 15, 22, 192 (See also
Sweet gum)

“Red haws’’, 202

“Red maple”, 254

“Red mulberry”, 152

“Red oak’, 25,, 122, 124,125

Red pepper, 314

“Red-root, red-shank”, 260

“Red sumac”, 238

INDEX 353

“Reeds”, 72
Rehder, Alfred, 21, 22, 107, 285-287
Ryamnaceask, 258-261, 326
Rhamnus, 259, 335
Rhapidophyllum, 80-82
Rhododendron, 22, 285, 287-289, 329,
336

Rhus, 16, 18, 232-240
“ aromatica, 238
atrovirens, 238
“ copallina, 237
“ cotinoides, 14, 19, 232
« glabra, 238, 330
“radicans, 240
“ Toxicodendron, 240
“ typhina, 238
venenata, 239

“ Vermx, 239
Ribes, 190, 191, 328
Richardson, W. D., 339
“River cypress”, 25, 61
“River grape”, 263
Road material (pine straw), 41
Robinia, 223-224, 329
Robinson, B. L., 204
Rogers, Miss Z., 257
Rollers, 119, 279
Ropes (bark), 177, 266
Rosa, 198-200
Rosaceak, 194-200, 325
Rose family, 194
“Rosemary”, 231, 313
“Roses”, 198-200, 208
Rosin, 41, 43
Roth, Filibert, 20, 21
“Round-leaf black-jack’, 129
Rubber, 151, 229
RvusrAcEak, 317, 326
Rubus, 197-198, 329
Rue, J. D., 22, 58, 60
Rugel, Ferdinand, 273
Rulac, 254
Rumbold, Miss C., 109
Rusby, H. H., 16

S
Sabal, 78, 80, 333
Sabina, 68, 70
Sageretia, 29, 259, 331
“St. Andrew’s cross”, 270
St. John, Harold, 21, 185
St. Johnswort family, 270
“St. Peter’s wort”, 270
SartcacEAk, 100-103, 325
Salicylic acid, 101
Salix, 101, 102, 329, 335, 337
Salt (in soil), 119, 314, 322, 323,

331

Salves, 191

Sambucus, 317, 335

Sandals, 314

Sandalwood family, 157

Sand-bars, 101

“Sand-hill post oak”, 114

SANTALACEAE, 157, 325

SAPINDACEAE, 250, 326

Sapindus, 227, 250

Sapium, 231

Sapodilla family, 300

SapotacEAE, 300-301, 326

Sargent, C. S., 21, 26, 60, 102, 109,
146, 118, 120-122, 125, 167,
191, 203-205, 207-209, 211,
235, 237, 243, 266-268, 300,
301, 304

“Sarsaparilla’, 176, 275

Sash (for windows), 41, 63

“Sassafras”, 27, 181-183, 300

Satureja, 312

Sawdust, 41

Saw-handles, 107

Sawmills, 45, 46

“Saw-palmetto”, 79

SAXIFRAGACEAE, 184-190, 325

“Scaly-bark hickory”, 91, 94

“Scarlet oak’, 125

Schaeffer, C. H., 304

Schizandra, 176

Schmaltzia, 238-239, 329, 338

Schwarz, G. F., 21, 43

Scientific instruments, 215

Scroll-work, 244

ScROPHULARIACEAE, 314, 326

“Scrub live oak’, 121

“Scrub pine’, 21

Scuppernong, 263

Sebastiana, 230-231, 334

Sedatives, 215

Senna family, 217

Serenoa, 79, 80, 332

Sensitive plants, 217

“Service-berry’, 202

Sesbania Cavanillesii, 223

“Seven-bark’, 186

Sewing machines, 87

Shackelford, R. W., 131

“Shad-bush”’, 202

Shade trees, (61, 66, 68), 87, 102,
103, 1075, 108996112), lis
116, 119; 122; 125;)131,,137-
140, 143-146, 148, 151-153,
171, (172);_ (192), 223, 225-
227, 251, 253, 254, 266, 304

Shafer, J. A., 204

Shingles, 41, 62, 67, 108, 172, 183

354 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Ships, Lig 143

Ship knees, 119

“Shittimwood”, 232

Shoe findings, lasts, 107, 299
“Short-leaf pine”, 18, 25, 48, 52
Shuttles, 243, 276, 278, 293, 299
Silica (in Prunus), 213, 339
Sills, 41

“Silver bell tree’, 303

“Silver maple’, 253
SIMARUBACEAE, 226, 325

Slack cooperage, (41), 193
“Slippery elm’, 143

“Slash pine”, 18, 24, 46-48
“eloe’, 214

pimall JK... 20, 29, 30157. 179)
192, 198, 204, 206, 226, 227,

264, 285, 288, 289
SMILACACEAE, 83-86, 325
Smilax, 83-86, 327

“auriculata, 84, 331

“~ Beyrichii, 84
glauca, 84
“~~ lanceolata, 85-86, 333
“ laurifolia, 85, 336, 337
“rotundifolia, 84
“ Walteri, 85, 333, 337

Smith, Eugene A., 9, 10, 20, 21, 32,
34-38, 40, 42, 105, 115, 120,
167, 178, 199, 229, 236, 244,
259, 265, 269, 270, 288, 310,

313
“~ Franklin H., 18
She Lee

“Smoke-trees’, 232

Smoking meat, 88

Snake-bites, 307

Snow, effect on vegetation, 28
Snow, C. H., 21

Soap, 97

“Soapberry”, 250

“Soft maples”, 253-254

Soil fertility, 32, 34, 38, 160, 271
SOLANACEAE, 314, 326, 327
Sore mouth, 179

Sour soil, 332

“Sourwood”, 293

South Carolina, 47, 73, 79, 109
“Spanish bayonet”, 82
“Spanish oak”, 122, 125
“Sparkleberry”, 295

Spars, 39

“Spice-bush, spice-wood”, 183
Spigots, (107)

“Spikenard”, 275

Spiraea, 194

Splitters (of species), (24-25), 70,
200, 208, (266, 167)

Spokes, 88

Spools, 115, 193

“Spoon-wood”, 289

“Spruce pine’, 19, 54, 58, 60

Spurge family, 228

“Squaw huckleberry”, 296

Squirrels, 146

Staff-tree family, 249

Standish, L. M., 208

Staphylea, 226, 251, 335

STAPHYLEACEAE, 251, 326

State flower, 199, 339

Staves, 41, 112, 113, 122. (See also
Cooperage )

Stelle, J. P.. 21, 243, 260; 269

Sterculia, 268

STERCULIACEAE, 268, 326

Sterrett, W. D., 21, 50, 58, 304

Stewartia, 269-270, 328, 336

Stillingia, 229, 332

Stimulants, 166, 173, 225, 246

“Stink-bush, stinking bay or laurel”,
173

Storax family, 302

“Strawberry bush”, 249

Strong-scented plants, (232), 237,
(238, 316)

Strychnine, 309

Stuartia, 269

STYRACACEAE, 302-304, 326

Styrax, 302-303; 332. 334. 386nsas:
339

Sudworth, G. B., 22, 26, 29, 68, 131,
Als Alay, Ah, Boys

Sugar, 251

“Sugar-berry”’, 148

“Sugar haw”, 209

“Sugar maple”, 251, 252

Sulphur (in soil), 119, 243

Sumac family, 232

“Srey, Ws. st, 2eye2 es

Sunflower family, 322

Surgery, 282

Surface, H. E., 22, 43

“Swamp chestnut oak’, 118

“Swamp hickory’, 91

“Swamp palmetto”, 78

“Swamp post oak”, 114

“Sweet bay”, 164, 180, 301

“Sweet gum’, 55, 108, 192

“Sweet leaf”, 301

“Sweet pepper bush”, 285

“Sweet-shrubs”, 179

“Sweet sumac”, 238

INDEX go0

“Sycamore”, 14, 153

Symphoricarpos, 320, 329

SyMPLOCACEAE, Symplocos, 301-302,
326, 338

“Syringa”’, 184

at

Tallow, “tallow tree’, 231
Tamala, 180

Tan-bark, 60, 107, 116
“Tan bay”, 268

Tanks, 62

Tannin, 79

Tanning, (60), 107, 109, 113, 116,
119, 122, 237, 269

“tay ES AS

Taxodium, 16, 18, 21, (25), 61-67
(See also Cypress)

“ ascendens, 64-67, (292), 332
“ distichum, 61-65, 78, 146-148,
333
imbricarium, 64,65, 292, (332)
Tea, 246, 260, 268

Tea family, 268

Tecoma, 315, 335

Telegraph and telephone poles (see
Poles )

Tennessee, 13, 68, 172, 237, 322, 336

TERNSTROEMIACEAE, 208

Texas, 90, 99, 131, 151, 217, 223,
DEV. VAL

THEACEAE, 268-270, 326

Thistle family, 322

“Thunderwood”’, 239

THYMELEACEAE, 274, 326

“Tighteye”’, 241

anes 14, ah 25, 268, 326

TILIACEAE, 266-268, 326

itt, 241

Tomatoes, 314

Tonics, 166, 173, 215, 224, 226, 276,
307

Tool-handles, 104

Toothache, 99

“Toothache tree’, 225

Torches, 42

Tough bark, 266, 274

Toxicodendrol, 240

Toxicodendron, 239-241, 336, 337

Toxylon, 151, 156

Trachelospermum, 310, 334

Tramways, 282

“Tree huckleberry”, 295

“Tree of Heaven’, 226

Trestles, 58, 63, 68

Troughs, 62

True, R. H., 22, 90

Trumpet-creeper family, 315

Trunks, 256

Tsuga, 15, 60-61

Tsutsusi, 286, 339

Tubs, 62

“Tulip (poplar) tree”, 172

Tulipastrum, 171

Tuomcey, M., 167, 216, 231

“Tupelo (gum)”, 18, 279, 282

“Turkey oak”, 126, 133

Turpentine, 19, 24, (39), 42, 43,
45, 46, 48

“Tyty”, 241, 243

U

Urmaceae, 143-150, 325
Ulmus alata, 143-145, 156, 330, 335
« Americana, 143, 154, 156, 330,
Seis
“ — Floridana, 143
“ fulva, 145, 329
“pubescens, 145
serotina, 14, 146, 329, 339
“Umbrella tree’, 227
Underwood, L. M., 184, 286, 293
Wis Ss IDEDE Agriculture, 9, 14, 15,
7 See2 0222 90 mall
U. S. Forest Service (formerly Di-
vision oF Bureau of For-
estry), PAZ RTP 22 87.
112, he sie WS ZS
we National Herbarium, 9, 20
WE 2 Pharmacopoeia, 79, 113, 182,
238, 309
Uphot,-j~ C1, 195
V
Vachellia, 217
VACCINIACEAE, 294-299, 326
Zaccinium arboreum, 295
“ corymbosum, 198, 336, 338
« Elliottt, 298
« fuscatum, 299
Myrsinites, 297, 334, 338
“ aitidum, 297
“pallidum, 299
stamineum, 20, 296
“ wvacillans, 298, 330, 336
“ wirgatum, 336, 338
Vandals, 269, 277, 287, 288
“Varnish tree’, 268
Vases, Vats, 62
Veatch, J. O., 135
Vehicles, 112, 143, (172)
Veneers, 153, 162, 193, 282, 314
VERBENACEAE, 311-312, 326
Vervain family, 311

el

356 ECONOMIC BOTANY OF ALABAMA

Viburnum acerifolium, 318, 330, 337,

338
bracteatum, 319
“ cassinoides, 320, 329, 337
“ dentatum, 320
ferrugineum, 318
Lentago, 320
“ molle, 319
“ nitidum, 320, 332
“nudum, 319, 320, 338
“ obovatum, 320
“ prunifolium, 318
“ rufidulum
318
(scabrellum) ,
SIO R335" 3084 G30
Vines, 29, 324-326
Virginia, 21, 58, 76, 227, 246
“Virginia creeper”, 265
Vitex, 312
VITACEAE, 261-265, 326, 327
Vitis aestivalis, 262
Baileyana, 264
bicolor, 262
bijinnata, 264
“cinerea, 262
“ cordata, 262-263
“~ ancisa, 264
“ indivisa, 264
“riparia, 263
“rotundifolia, 263, 335, 336
vulpina, 263
Von Schrenk, H., 22, 193

W

Wagons, 172 (See also Vehicles)

Wagon standards, 112

“Wahoo”, 143

Wailes, B. L. C.,
266

Wainscoting, 41
“Walnut”, 14, 22, 87-88, 145
Walnut family, 87-96
Wash tubs, 62
Water buckets, 67
“Water elm’, 146
“Water oak”, 25, 137-139
Water pipes (wooden),
Watson, Sereno, 199, 203
Wax, 97-100

97-100

“Wax myrtles”,
“Waxwork”, 250

Weatherboards, 41, 54, 172
Wedges, 104

N09; 28352192; 193;

58, 62

(rufotomentosum),

semitomentosum,

Weedy plants, 50, 83, 84, 103, 137,
139, 145, 150, 154, 158, (159),
181-182, 193, 197-199, 203,
214, 215, 217, 218; 2205 223,
224, 226, 228, (237, 238, 246),
250, 260, 264-266, 268, 275,
299, 310, 312, 314=-31757320!
SA 28)

Wells, S. D., 22, 58, 60

Wheelbarrows, 107

Wheeler, A. S., a2, 87

CDE EY OAR Az

Whips, 88

Wore Ws IL 22 (62)

“White alder’, 285

“White ash”, 304, 307

“White bay’, 27, 164

“White cedar”, 67

“White cypress”, 61

“White elm’, 143

“White maple’, 253

“White mulberry’, 152

“White oak’, 16, 112

“White poplar’, 172

“White sumac”, 238

“White walnut”, 88

“Whitewood”, 172

Whooping cough, 10S

“Wicky”, 291, 292

“Wicopy’, 274

Wight, W. F., 22, 212-214

“Wild cherry’ 214

“Wild china”, 227, 250

“Wild grape’, 227, 250

“Wild peach”, 216

“Wild plum”, 213, 214

“Wild sarsaparilla’, 176

“Wild smilax”, 85

Williamson, A. W., 22, 103

“Willow”, 27, 101, 102

Willow family, 100

“Willow oak’, 139-142

Wilson, E. H., 22, 285, 286

“ M. C., 9, 192, 194, 220;2am
271, 288

“Winged elm”, 143

“Winter huckleberry”, 295

Wistaria, Wisteria, 222-223, 334

Wolf, W. (Brother Wolfgang), 22,
117, 129, 150) 157, 1G7ze
199, 211, 213, 222, 224, 247,
248, 253, 269, 286, 287, 322

INDEX 357

“Woodbines”, 320
Wood-burning locomotives, 42

Woodenware, 148, 171, 244, 253, 255,
266, 304

Wood pulp, 22, 60, 172, 255, 258

Woodruff, S., 305

Wreaths, 180, 243

Wyman, W. S., 16, 195

xX

Nanthorrhiza, 178, 330, 336, 337
Xanthoxylum, 225
Xolisma, 293 (See Cholisma)

Y

“VYaupon”’, 244, 246
“Yellow cypress”, 61
“Yellow jessamine”, 309
“Vellow oak”, 118
“Yellow poplar”, 172
“Yeliow-root”, 178
“Vellow-wcod”", 220, 232
Yucca, 28, 82-83, 339

is,

Zanthorhiza, 178 (See Xanthorrhiza)
Zanthoxylum (See Nanthoxrylum)
Zizyphus, 260

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