GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

WILLARD C. 8RINTON

1939

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From Frontispiece of Book by WILLIAM PLAYFAIR, An Inquiry Into the Permanent Causes of the Dechne and Fall of Powerful and Wealthy Nations,

London, 1805.

M

Dedicated

IN HONOR of

WILLIAM PLAYFAIR

FIRST EXPONENT OF GRAPHIC CHARTS FOR GENERAL USE

Born at Benvie, Scotland, 1 759 Died in London, England, 1823

DRAFTSMAN-ENGINEER With James Watt 1780

MANUFACTURER

AUTHOR:

THE COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL ATLAS. 1st ed., 1786; 2nd ed., 1787; 3rd ed., 1801

TABLEAUX D'ARITHMETIQUE LINEAIRE DU COMMERCE, 1789

LINEAL ARITHMETIC, 1798

STATISTICAL BREVIARY, 1801

AN INQUIRY INTO THE PERMANENT CAUSES OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF POWERFUL AND WEALTHY NATIONS. 1st ed, 1805; 2nd ed., 1807

STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA By D. F. DONNANT. Translated From the French By WILLIAM PLAYFAIR. Chart and Preface Also By WILLIAM PLAYFAIR. 1805

A LETTER ON OUR AGRICULTURAL DISTRESSES, 1st ed., 1821; 2nd ed., 1822; 3rd ed., 1822

CAN THIS CONTINUE?, 1822

The above titles by William Playfair are all, thus far located, which contain graphic charts. The total number of books by William Playfair is perhaps one hundred.

TOPICAL INDEX (1st Half) J '

Place rif^ht thumb on triangle, finders inside back cover. Spin pa^es to desired chapter. ,

9-15 Preface — 1- —

16-23 1. Introduction

25- 32 2. Graphic Narrative 33- 42 3. Tabulation

43- 52 4. Classification Charts

53- 58 5. Geneology and Genetics Charts

59- 67 6. Organization Charts

68-72 7. Relationship Charts

73- 80 8. Flow Charts

81- 91 9. Sector Charts

92- 97 10. 100% Bar Charts

98-105 11. Comparison of 100% Bar Charts 106-114 12. Multiple Bar Charts

115-120 13. Contrasting Bar Charts —

121-131 14. Pictorial Unit Bar Charts

132-141 15. Comparison of Component Bar Charts

142-148 16. Bilateral Bar Charts

149-152 17. Area Bar Charts

1 53-1 60 18. General Use of Maps

1 61 -1 69 19. Guide and Route Maps

170-177 20. Relief and Aerial Maps

178-186 21. Crosshatched and Colored Maps

187-193 22. Dot and Pin Maps

194-199 23. Maps with Circles and Sector Charts 200-207 24. Maps with Bar Charts

208-210 25. Maps with Curve Charts

211-215 26. Maps with Symbols

216-230 27. Flow Maps

231-237 28. Contour Maps

238-242 29. Distorted Maps

243-246 30. Rating Charts

(For 2nd Half of TOPICAL INDEX, See Page 247)

MAGIC IN GRAPHS

■■■HERE is a magic in graphs. The profile of a curve reveals in "J "J a flash a whole situation — the life history of an epidemic, a Mfelp^nic, or an era of prosperity. The curve informs the mind, awakens the imagination, convinces.

Graphs carry the message home. A universal language, graphs convey information directly to the mind. Without complexity there is imaged to the eye a magnitude to be remembered. Words have wings, but graphs interpret. Graphs are pure quantity, stripped of verbal sham, reduced to dimension, vivid, unescapable.

Graphs are all inclusive. No fact is too slight or too great to plot to a scale suited to the eye. Graphs may record the path of an ion or the orbit of the sun, the rise of a civilization, or the accelera- tion of a bullet, the climate of a century or the varying pressure of a heart beat, the growth of a business, or the nerve reactions of a child.

The graphic art depicts magnitudes to the eye. It does more. It compels the seeing of relations. We may portray by simple graphic methods whole masses of intricate routine, the organization of an enterprise, or the plan of a campaign. Graphs serve as storm signals for the manager, statesman, engineer; as potent narratives for the actuary, statist, naturalist; and as forceful engines of research for science, technology and industry. They display results. They disclose new facts and laws. They reveal discov- eries as the bud unfolds the flower.

The graphic language is modern. We are learning its alphabet. That it will develop a lexicon and a literature marvelous for its vividness and the variety of application is inevitable.

Graphs are dynamic, dramatic. They may epitomize an epoch, each dot a fact, each slope an event, each curve a history. Wher- ever there are data to record, inferences to draw, or facts to tell, graphs furnish the unrivalled means whose power we are just be- ginning to realize and to apply.

HENRY D. HUBBARD

National Bureau of Standards Washington, D. C.

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

By

WILLARD COPE BRINTON, S. B.

Consulting Engineer

Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Organizer and Chair- man, Joint Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation, Formed 1914 Through Am.Soc.M.E., as Sponsor. Fellow, American Statistical Associa- tion; Vice President, 1919. Author Graphic Methods for Presenting Facta, 1914, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

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BRINTON ASSOCIATES

New York City 1939

This book was planned with the hope of inspiring more and better factual presentation. If proper credits are given, any rea- sonable portion of this book may be quoted without further consent. However, to copy any materials here credited to others, care must be exercised to secure permission from the original sources.

Copyright, Brinton Associates, 1939 First Edition

Also by Willard C. Brinton

GRAPHIC METHODS FOR PRESENTING FACTS. 1914

Published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

New York City

Printed in the United States of America

TABLE OF CONTENTS

When a chapter name or number is given as a reference, turn to the Topical Index, either on Page 1 or Page 247, and spin pages to the desired chapter.

Chapter Page

Preface 9

1. Introduction 16

Brief History of Development of Graphic Methods.

2. Graphic Narrative 25

Early Drawings. Picture Comparisons. Sequence Pictures. Pro- cedure Charts. Sports Stories. Basic English.

3. Tabulation 33

Tallying. Methods of Tabulating. Graphic Tabulation. Machine Tabulation.

4. Classification Charts 43

Use of Arrows and Brackets in Classification. Time-Period Clas- sification. Block Classification.

5. Genealogy and Genetics Charts 53

Standard Symbols. Trait-Tracing Charts. Family Tree. Pedigree Charts. Genealogical Chart Sheets. Other Uses for Genealogy Charts.

6. Organization Charts 59

Geographical Divisions. Government and Business Organization. Functional Charts.

7. Relationship Charts 68

Interrelations.

8. Flow Charts 73

Source and Distribution Chart. Traffic Chart. Activity Chart. Cost-Accounting Chart. Cosmograph.

9. Sector Charts 81

Area and Angle Comparisons. Subdivided Sector Charts. Cumu- lative Charts. Charts Showing Assets and Liabilities.

10. 100% Bar Charts 92

Single Bars. Bar Chart Stamp. Percentage Distributions. Cumulative Charts.

11. Comparison of 100% Bar Charts 98

Groups of Bars. Distribution and Percentage Comparisons.

12. Multiple Bar Charts 106

Value Comparisons. Bars on an Illustration.

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

Chapter P««e

13. Contrasting Bar Charts 115

Variation in Shadings. Crosshatchings, and Colors. Optical Illusion.

14. Pictorial Unit Bar Charts 121

Rows of Figures. Visual Captions.

15. Comparison of Component Bar Charts 132

Divided Bars Comparing Values. Comparison of 100% Bars and Component Bar Charts. Stair Charts.

16. Bilateral Bar Charts 142

Profit and Loss Data. Deviations from Normal.

17. Area Bar Charts 149

Area Comparisons. 100% Square.

18. General Use of Maps 153

Source of Maps. Base Maps. Map Projection. Borgia Map. Orange-Peel Map.

19. Guide and Route Maps 161

Proposed Routes. Transmission Lines. Maps Showing Sourcfe of Materials. Geographic Organization Charts. Comparisons of Geographic Areas. Pictorial Maps.

20. Relief and Aerial Maps 170

Oldest Known Map. Bird's-Eye View Maps. Diagram Maps. Statistical Relief Maps. Block Diagrams. Azimuthal Projection.

21. Crosshatched and Colored Maps 178

Comparison of Ben Day Shadings and Colors. Sampling Maps. Density Maps. Mechanical Intensity Shading Map.

22. Dot and Pin Maps 187

Map Marking Devices. Slave Maps. Bell System Map.

23. Maps With Circles and Sector Charts 194

Scales for Areas of Circles. Census Data. Distribution. Migration.

24. Maps With Bar Charts 200

Traffic Charts. Historical Maps. Map from New York World's Fair, 1939.

25. Maps With Curve Charts 208

Moving Averages. Precipitation.

26. Maps With Symbols 211

Quantitative and Qualitati«ve Data. Pictorial Units.

27. Flow Maps 216

Flow of Goods. TrafRc Maps. Weather Maps. Hurricane Maps. Traffic Time.-Zones Map. Chart by M. Minard.

28. Contour Maps 231

Topographic Maps. Weather Maps. Before and After Comparisons.

29. Distorted Maps 238

Rectangular Maps. Population.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

30. Rating Charts 243

Tabulation Form. Mental Development. Safety Records.

31. Chronology Charts 248

Time Analysis and Time Studies. Chart for Assigning Vacations.

32. Progress Charts 256

Time Studies. Material Control Board. Production Progress Chart. Gantt Charts.

33. Curve Charts 263

One Curve on a Grid. Visual Captions. Historical Labels. Stair Charts. Deviation from Normal.

34. Comparison With Two Curves 275

Cumulative Curves. Causal Relationships. High-Low Curves. Lag.

35. Comparisons With Curves 286

Progressive Average and Moving Average Curves. Normal Trend.

36. Component Parts Shown by Curves 294

Component Parts in Curve Form. Percentage Charts. Band Charts. Use of Brackets.

37. Index Numbers Shown by Curves 301

Comparison of Index Charts with Numerical Value Charts. Mul- tiple Axis Graph.

38. Frequency Charts 310

Frequency Distribution. Bell-Curve Chart. Distribution in a Circle. Optical Illusion.

39. Correlation Charts 320

Relationships Between Variables. Scatter Charts. Standard Deviation. Break-Even Charts.

40. Ogive and Lorenz Charts 331

Probability Paper Charts.

41. Ratio Charts 339

Comparison of Ratio and Arithmetic Scale. Key for Selecting Ratio Scale. Method of Ruling Ratio Paper. Index Numbers Curves. Cumulative Curves.

42. Three-Dimensional Methods 354

Models. Perspective Drawings. Photographs. Isometric Block Diagram. Isometric Protractor. Trilinear Chart.

43. Composite Charts 360

Methods of Combining Various Types of Charts.

44. Suggestions for Making a Chart 367

Helpful Techniques. Sources of Materials. Methods of Lettering. Ink Colors. Crayons. Colored Papers.

45. Standards for Time Series Charts 381

Abstracts from Time Series Charts. A Manual of Design and Construction, 1938, Prepared by Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation, under Procedure of American Statistical

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

Chapter Page

Association, with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers as Sponsor Body.

46. The Camera and Its Use 397

Photographic Effects. Color Photography. Photomontage.

47. Lantern Slides 405

Projectors. Slides. Screens. Suggestions for Placing Charts on Slides. Microfilm.

48. Preparation of Illustrations 410

Types of Illustrations. Preparation of Copy. Reproduction Media for Art Work. Handling Photographs. Shading Mediums and Shading Films. Halftone Screen Tints. Colors Used in This Book.

49. Color and Its Use 423

Discussion of Hue, Value, Chroma. Color Top. How Colors Appear to the Color Blind.

50. Methods of Reproducing 429

Gelatine Process Duplicating Machines. Blue Prints. Photostats. Mimeograph Process. Fluid Process Duplicator. Lithoprints. Multilith.

51. Methods of Printing 435

Relief, Planographic, and Intaglio Printing. Typesetting. Type Sizes and Styles. Photoengraving, Electrotyping, and Line Plates. Proofreaders' Marks.

52. Selection of Paper 443

Types of Paper. Considerations in the Selection of Paper. Bulk- ink Table.

53. Binding Techniques 449

Types of Binding. Binding Specifications. Imposition.

54. Graphic Charts in Advertising 454

Various Types of Graphic Charts in Advertising Material.

55. Quantitative Cartoons 464

Various Types of Graphic Charts in Cartoons.

56. Quantitative Posters 475

Various Types of Charts in Poster Form. Magazine Covers.

57. Displays and Exhibits 486

Mechanical Exhibits. Scale Models. Display Fixtures. Turn- tables. New York World's Fair Exhibits.

58. Dioramas 494

Dioramas in Process of Construction. Dissolving Diorama Exhibit. New York World's Fair Exhibits.

59. Graphic Charts in Conference Rooms 497

Board Rooms. Use of Projectors in Conference Rooms.

60. Glossary 501

Graphic Methods Vocabulary.

Index 506

PREFACE

TWENTY-FIVE years have passed since the publication of Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts in 1914. The continuing demand for Graphic Methods without revisions in a quarter century now incites curiosity as to the causes of that demand. So many excellent works relating to graphic charts or containing chapters on graphic presentation have appeared since 1914 that I had felt the field well covered without another book from me. This, in spite of the fact that I have published nothing regarding activities of my own relating to the 1914-1918 World War period.

Probably the feverish demand for prompt and reliable data during war times did more to stimulate the use of graphic chart technique than anything that has happened since 1920. Without realizing what was happening as the war flared, I found myself advising the executives of large corporations, gov- ernment departments, etc. World trade was disorganized, and the uncertainty of material supply required quick anal- ysis of all available data. For instance, in 1916, a New York silk manufacturer and I went to China and back again on the same steamer to determine the feasi- bility of building a new plant in Shang- hai to employ five thousand.

For one of my age at that time, it was a great privilege to have the oppor- tunity to develop some theories and put them in practice day by day with experienced executives whose decisions were so vital in those hectic war years. Establishing, in a Broadway office building, control methods for quicker "tum-arounds" of eighty-five ships chartered by the Belgian Relief Commis- sion had little relation to strategy in the president's office of a steel company with twenty thousand employees in Pittsburgh, or scheduling, at New Haven, Connecticut, two thousand tool makers scattered in shops throughout New England to assist in producing the light Browning machine gun by a company already working twenty-two thousand employees at the New Haven plant. During that period "Z" chart methods and unit card curve records were

^^^^ v/ay/zz^yy?

Signature of William Piayfair from a Letter to Thomas Jefferson Dated March 20, 1791

10

■I"

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

developed for use in fields much more specialized than would be of interest here. Also short map pins with spherical heads were created and placed on a quantity production basis. Through all the research of the World War period, the need was constantly evident for standardization so that graphic charts could be made and interpreted without possibility of misunderstanding. For general use, graphic charts must be simple. It is not, however, always easy to determine what is the utmost simplicity. Much depends on the method of approach. A semi-logarithmic chart may not be puzzling if you call it a ratio chart and make no mention of mathematics.

Since the close of the World War, other activi- ties have crowded into the background my in- terest in graphic charts and human reactions to them. It was impossible, however, to resist tearing from magazines and newspapers thousands of examples of particularly interesting or especially erratic graphic charts. These were added to ex- amples which had come, in what Hollywood would call "fan mail," from readers of Graphic Methods. As recently as twenty months ago there was still no expectation of my ever writing an- other book on the sub- ject.

Although I had been in Los Angeles many times and had passed the Huntington Library on John Playfair, the Brother of William Playfair

numerous occasions, I in his Inquiry, 1805, William Playfair stated that his

had never found time to brother taught him "that whatever can be ex-

visit it Then after pressed in numbers, may be expressed by lines."

,, / . . , J To the "best and most affectionate of brothers,"

months of mtensive study ,,,.„. ™ , .

William Playfair owed "the invention of these

Charts."

ill

■I"

PREFACE

of some problems in Los Angeles in which graphic presentation had proved particularly effective in crystallizing opinion on a complex situation. I visited the Huntington Library on the last day before starting North and East. While observing some unusually fine types of early bookbinding and the repairs made to the bindings on some of the Library's most precious volumes, it occurred to me to ask the Librarian, Dr. Leslie Bliss, what books the library had by William Playfair, to whom this book is dedicated. In a few minutes there was brought to us the only one they had listed under William Playfair:

STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

by D. F. DoNNANT

•

Translated from the French by William Playfair

With an Addition on the Trade to America,

For the Use of Commercial Men,

By the Sanie.

•

London 1805

As we looked through this book, I exclaimed to Dr. Bliss, "Here is the earliest example of a sector chart," and then noticed beneath the one illustra- tion the inscription, "This Newly invented Method is intended to shew the Proportions between the divisions in a Striking Manner." See Page 81.

I was also much struck by the fact that the subject matter of the book referred to industry, commerce, and finance in the United States, that the preface by William Playfair mentioned conversations between himself and Thomas Jefferson, that the book was inscribed to Jefferson, and that twenty- five copies had been sent to him.

When I wrote Graphic Methods in 1914. I had never heard of William Playfair. Two years later a friend in Pittsburgh sent me a marked catalogue of a London bookseller listing a book Lineal Arithmetic, 1798, by William

11

ill

12

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

Playfair. Out of curiosity. I wrote asking that the book be reserved and that a price quotation be sent. A few weeks later, upon returning from out of the city, I was astonished to find the EngHsh book seller's bill for ten shillings, six pence. Elsewhere in my accumulated mail was the book itself. On the title page the publisher's price is printed, "Price 10s. 6d." Neither the New York Public Library nor the Library of Congress had this book. Each of these libraries has since photostatted my volume for inclusion with the few examples of other Playfair works which they own. About 1916, I had various photostats made from these Playfair books, but had never followed up clues on Playfair, the man. The Playfair search has widened since the chance inquiry made at the Huntington Library a year ago. Questions still continue.

With all that Playfair did to show the effectiveness of graphic chart methods from his first book, published in 1786 at the age of twenty-seven, till his death in 1823, why have not graphic charts become more thoroughly established as a universal language? Another interest was aroused as to the part which engineers have played in the development of the graphic lan- guage, since I noted in California that William Playfair was apprenticed in Scotland as a machinist and later became a draftsman for James Watt before writing on a wide variety of subjects. There are about 100 titles by Playfair on record. The story of William Playfair, still developing, may yet have large gaps. Location of those writings relating to graphic charts, however, appears to be fairly well completed.

This book is another contribution from the engineering profession, although written for general use rather than the technical field, on much the same general ideas as expressed in Graphic Methods in 1914. The 1914 book was written largely to disclose some of the fallacies that occur when graphic charts are used loosely without the basis of accuracy essentially associated with the work of people with an engineering background.

Until the last decade or so, the use of graphic charts seemed to be progress- ing sanely and fairly rapidly with no more guidance than resulted from the extremely brief preliminary report of the Joint Committee on Standards for Graphic Presentation, published in 1915. In recent years, some weeds seem to have sprung up to retard the growth of the more cultivated graphics which had been developing strongly with numerous offshoots since the World War stimulus. As in a garden where there is sometimes the policy of deciding in the early stages which are weeds and which are plants that will be productive, it has not been easy to find a method for defining good graphic charts as compared with poor or downright obnoxious charts. What is believed to be a satisfactory method was found in the old story of the blind men who reported on the characteristics of an elephant. Good graphic presentation should be susceptible to only one interpretation.

Recently even official government documents have been using a type of graphics which found its first major use in European countries having a low

PREFACE

13

percentage of literacy. When the same European methods have been pushed on a commerciaHzed basis in America, little attempt has been made to follow existing American standards or trends toward the development of an ultimate universal language. The tendency has been to use stock symbols over and over again because they are cheaper to reproduce than special drawings designed for each particular problem of presentation.

The first part of this book up through page 366 deals with "How to Read a Chart." The section from page 366 to page 452 treating the subject "How to Make a Chart," is necessarily condensed, and gives suggestions rather than detailed instructions.

The illustrations in this book have been selected from the standpoint of interesting subject matter as well as to show representative types of graphic

AND All h^ere in the ivrong!

Good Presentafion Should Be Susceptible to Only One interpretation

It was six men of Indostan The Fourth (knee) "Is very like a tree!" To learning much inclined,

Who went to see the Elephant (Though all of them were blind.)

That each by observation Might satisfy his mind.

The Fifth (ear) "Is mighty like a fan!"

The Sixth (tail) "Is very like a rope!"

The First (side) "Is very like a wall!"

The Second (tusk) "Is very like a spear!"

The Third (trunk) "Is very like a snake!"

And so these men of Indostan

Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion

Exceeding stiff and strong Though each was partly in the right.

And all were in the wrong!

From John Godfrey Saxr. "The Blind Men and the Elephant". CIrvrr Slnrin nl Many Natir>n> R^-ndrred in Rhime. 1865.

14

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GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

charts. Words are carefully studied before they are qualified for admittance in a dictionary. No one knows how many distinct types of graphic charts are already in established use.

Beneath the majority of the illustrations included here, there is a notation of "SCALE" to indicate the percentage reproduction of the original. In judg- ing the effectiveness of any presentation it should be clearly kept in mind that, as here reduced, the illustration can not be as effective as in the size originally published. Also in the process of photographing, particularly in those charts taken from newsprint paper, the illustration is less clear. Half- tones which here appear too black have been photographed from previously printed halftones rather than from original photographs.

If the subject matter of any illustration is of special interest to the user of this book, a reading glass may be used to enlarge the detail.

Because a frame around the chart may be interpreted falsely as a zero line, or base line, the liberty has been taken to remove frames from many illustra- tions. Changes have also been made in lettering or other details, when neces- sary, for reproduction in reduced sizes.

It should be clearly understood that this book would not have been feasible except for the photo offset process of reproduction and color printing.

The use of color has been a gamble— many of the charts here shown in color were originally black and white. It was impossible to foresee results obtained from hundreds of lay-outs sent to the printer. Changes may seem obvious in the final printed form.

Designs at the top and bottom of color pages may appear incongruous with some of the color combinations in the body of the page. Varied color designs were inserted with the thought that the user of this book might gain from our experiments and select certain effects appropriate for his own par- ticular problem.

In order to test whether color is worth while in graphic presentation, color has here been literally splashed on. In folding printed sheets for sewing into bookbinders' signatures, every other pair of pages evolve from one side of the printed sheet of paper. Thus, if color is printed on only one side, a reader finds color on every other pair of pages in the book. In this way it is possible for the reader of this book to judge the effect of color on the varied types of charts shown in the 60 chapters simply by turning the pages two at a time. It is believed the evidence is conclusive that to get maximum results in graphic presentation the question is not "Can one afford to use color?" but "Can one afford to omit color.?"

This book Graphic Presentation results from the work of many people. It would not have been possible except for the charts produced by the indi- viduals and organizations to whom credit is given under many of the 676 illustrations. The illustrations were selected from thousands of clippings

■■■

PREFACE

which I could not resist saving during the 25 years that have elapsed since publication of Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts in 1914.

The chapter on selection of paper was prepared by Mr. W. B. Gibson, of the Mead Sales Corporation, in consultation with officers of various trade associations. My wife, Laura M. Brinton, did practically all the work in preparation of Chapter 46, "The Camera and Its Use"; Chapter 47, "Lantern Slides," and Chapter 49, "Color and Its Use." Miss Audrey W. Zeigler, of Newburgh. New York, made all the drawings used as the headings of chap- ters. Mr. R. R. Lutz, of the National Industrial Conference Board, made valuable suggestions in the early stages of planning the book, particularly regarding the possibilities for the use of color. Mr. Roy S. McElwee, and numerous others read manuscript and contributed suggestions as the book progressed. In planning the printing, many helpful ideas were given by Mr. Edward N. Mayer, Jr., of Gray Photo Offset Corporation. The cooperation of the entire staff of that organization is appreciated. Personally I regret that frequent absences from the city have prevented that close contact which I should have preferred to give to such fascinating subject matter.

Methods of graphic presentation and new types of charts will continue to evolve through processes of human ingenuity as need arises. There is need for classification and comparison of types noting the advantage of each type and making all types available for general use internationally. Nomenclature alone is deserving of careful attention far beyond the range of any one indi- vidual.

In the discussion of these matters in Washington, D. C, during the past year the Honorable Kent E. Keller, member of the House of Representatives from Illinois, and Chairman of the House Committee on the Library of Con- gress, has been of great assistance in exploring the possibilities. Mr. Keller's unusual range of knowledge and experience in education, medicine, law, engineering, publishing, and mining, coupled with residence in Europe and Mexico, served in determining potentialities for not only a central file of graphic charts by types, but also a comprehensive file of graphic material arranged for quick reference and classified according to subject matter.

William Playfair, from his first book in 1786 throughout his writings to his death in 1823, mentioned the possibility that a graphic language could be an international language assisting in better relations between nations of different tongues. As this is written, with international conditions throughout the world unsettled and getting worse, there seems more than ever before a need for such a common graphic language as William Playfair envisioned.

WILLARD COPE BRINTON. New York City Sept. 6, 1939

15

1 16

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Wh

hy have graphic methods been so tardy in developing? Three things in combination are necessary before visual methods of presentation can be adequately used.

1. Accurate factual data readily available.

2. Competent drafting talent to chart the data on a standard- ized basis.

3. Equipment and organization for reproducing the charted data at a cost not too high compared to the printed word.

Until mankind developed reasonably cheap paper, there was no convenient method for preserving quantitative data. The study

"One hundred rumors are not comparable to one look."

An Old Chinese Inscription

of statistical records and the developing of policies from facts had to wait until records gradually accumulated. The making of paper and the preserving of records developed rapidly after the invention of loose-type printing about 1450.

At the time William Playfair wrote his first book on graphics in 1786, the word "statistics" had not come into general use. The word itself is derived from "state." The state first had to keep records of tax rolls, collections, and various government activities. Playfair lamented the inadequacy of historical data in a number of his writings; for instance, in Commercial and Political Atlas of 1801: "Had our ancestors represented the gradual increase of their com- merce and expenditures, if it had not been an object of utility, it would

INTRODUCTION

17

at least have been one of curiosity; but had records, written in this sort of shape [plotted curves] and speaking a language that all the world understands, existed at this day, of the commerce and revenue of ancient nations, what a real acquisition would it not have been to our stock of knowledge! In place of which, a few detached facts are col- lected and brought forward as the only criterion from which we can judge of the manners and wealth of the ancient world.

"It is not only of importance that this species of information should be handed down, but also that it should go down in such a form and manner as that any person might, even though a native of another country, understand the nature of the business delineated.

". . . If we could have a copy of the custom-house books of Carth- age or Tyre for a hundred years, what value might not be set on them! These charts [Playfair's] will be for future nations the same thing that the ancient records we so much desire would be for us now. . . ."

If we search into the past for factual data, we naturally think of libraries. If we could now examine the libraries as they existed at intervals of one hundred years, say one, two, three or four cen- turies back, what would we find? Probably very little factual

Courtesy of American Chicle Company — Makers of Dentyne Gum

The First Agricultural Report

18

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

information. Even books in our grandfathers' attics, if classified, would be short on factual material and long on abstruse discussion of theories, most of which were of a religious nature or perhaps vaguely astronomic or otherwise theoretical considerations of the universe.

The development of printing and the gradual cheapening of paper resulted in people of Europe and this country being exposed not to pictures but to more and more words, words not only from the printed page but from ministers of the gospel who, being of the educated class and able to read, obtained their inspiration from the printed material which came to them.

Let us consider bookmaking in the early days from the stand- point of cost. There would seem to be little reason why illustra- tions should not be generally used. Books were made from wooden blocks even before the use of movable metal type. Illuminated manuscripts and early books of similar pattern used illustrative methods which today we would think prohibitive from the cost standpoint. Labor must have been relatively cheap, especially in monasteries or other religious institutions which in those days pro- duced so much of the literary output. Probably there was nothing whatever to prevent the development of illuminated graph charts long before the days of William Playfair except lack of reliable factual data from which to make the charts. People of those days must have found out, just as we find out so often now, that if we start to chart our facts, we are frequently stopped by the startling insufficiency of the data, the annoyance that the data may have a single gap in its continuity, or that the data have not been kept on a uniform basis over the period of time under consideration.

Organization of data on a rectangular field would appear to be so obvious that it might have been done fairly early by scholars in different countries, if they had had much data to study. The printed page with its lines of words proceeding from left to right is in itself a coordinate field, the lay-out of which required careful thought from those who produced the illuminated manuscripts or books which are so fascinating to us now. Descartes in 1637 pub- lished his works on geometry which firmly established the method of rectangular coordinates when used for mathematical formulas. Those who are interested in the history of graphic presentation will find the sequences well brought out in a paper of one hundred and thirty- five pages by H. Gray Funkhouser, published in Osiris, Volume Three, Part One, 1937, available through the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C. Funkhouser dates the use of the coordinate field to astronomers and surveyors as far back as 140

:fBWK?!W5r.«

INTRODUCTION

19

B.C. when points in the earth's surface were located by means of their longitudes and latitudes. Oresme in 1350 in his Tractitus de Latitudinibus Formarum endeavored to represent graphically how an empirical curve might behave. As Funkhouser states, "If a pioneering contemporary had collected some data and presented Oresme with some facts to work on, we might have had statistical graphs four hundred years before Playfair."

Leonardo da Vinci antedated Descartes 77 years. Leonardo's genius in the natural sciences and as an engineer was so far in advance of his time that it would seem that he might have been familiar with rectangular coordinates. Recent examinations of his

notebooks, though not very con- clusive, seem to indicate that in his experiments regarding gravitation, his records of the velocity of fall- ing bodies were analyzed on a rectangular coordinate basis. See Volume M, Verso 40, Manuscripts of the Institute of France. He used horizontal distances to express time and vertical distances to show the space covered by falling balls when two were dropped together or one following the other. Leon- ardo, however, left no group to carry on his engineering works, which were little understood by his immediate contemporaries and successors. The American Statistical Association, formed in 1839, now cele- brating its one hundredth anniversary, is the earliest specialized scientific organization in this country. The American Philosophical Society, organized by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia, was, of course, earlier but its activities cover such a wide field as to put it in a different class. The American Society of Civil Engineers founded in 1876, was followed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1880 and then by numerous other en- gineering and scientific societies. The presentation of their papers in edited transactions has resulted in rapid advance in varied chart techniques.

In spite of all that Playfair pointed out a century and a half ago, and the interest shown by a few college instructors during recent years, there is still insignificant use of graphic presentation

Early Work on Books Was Done Monasteries

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

methods in the field of education. Educators themselves do rela- tively little to analyze the methods for transmitting facts and ideas.

At present most educators are graphically illiterate. An educator, or person with a message to give is referred to as : lecturer, speaker, orator, preacher, narrator, reciter, etc. These words generally imply the conveyance of a message through the ear without reference to the eye. Until the cinema was equipped with sound there was a move to use the word "optience" instead of "audience." Although the moving picture now combines perception through both the eye and the ear, the messages generally conveyed today by the motion picture are descriptive rather than quantitative. The moving pic- ture projector has not thus far been a great influence for intro- ducing the type of graphic presentation indicated in this book. Lantern slides, and more recently, slide films, have been important factors.

There are interesting possibilities if educational institutions would seriously study the methods for presenting ideas and facts, and then, as their instructors qualified in the new technique, designate each by the term "Presentor." In a similar way, a student might be called a "Perceivor." Each of these terms implies re-

•iiSf'45

H. Gray Punkhouser. "A Note on a Tenth Century Graph." OSIRIS. Vol. I. 1936.

A Tenth Century Graph That Forms a Part of a Manuscript Discovered by Sigmund Sunther in 1877

According to the article by Dr. Funkhouscr, from which this illustration was taken, the graph was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the planetary orbits as a function of the time.

INTRODUCTION

21

sponsibility for results. These terms are not limited in their scope to the field of education. Anyone planning a conference, conven- tion, committee, discussion, assembly, council, etc., might do well to consider the method for presenting the subject matter. How many of these meetings today are just talk? If each participant would consider himself as a Presentor of data or ideas that he is especially qualified to contribute to the group, there would be less misunderstanding and more conclusive action.

We are still expressing ourselves in meetings by the traditional methods the old patriarchs used to pass on the folklore of the tribe — by word of mouth. While the newspaper, the movie and the radio are being used to present descriptive material to secure public approval, quantitative presentations are relatively rare in publicity campaigns. The introduction of quantitative expression in every phase of life can lend itself to great future progress. There has been some discussion of the effectiveness of graphic methods to convey facts and ideas, but no comprehensive analysis has thus

Rene Descartes, 1596-1650

22

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

DEATH AFTER DARK

)930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937

25.000 24.000 23.000 22.000 21.000 20.000 19.000 )6.000 17.000 16.000 15.000 14.000 13.000

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	\	DAYLIGHT

How Charts Ought Not to Be Made

The omission of the zero line in this chart gives a false impression of the relative values of the number of accidents during the hours of darkness and

during daylight.

far been made measuring results from organized material carefully prepared and presented graphically.

The question is sometimes raised as to how you can present in graphic chart form, abstruse ideas which have not yet been reduced to words. Engineers and other people who are accustomed to using graphic methods are likely to approach the problem thinking graphically. They are apt to list the factors involved and then try different types of organization charts, etc., to work out the rela- tions and size of the different factors.

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INTRODUCTION

23

I

1911 l*M !«• l«tO I9tl l»ll IttS IM4 Ittt l»t« t*tl Its* I9I* I«SO t«SI t«9t 1993 19S4 I99S t9SS I9S1

Ratio Chart Showing Prices of Non-Ferrous Metals in the United States fronts 1917 to 1937.

The above chart was reduced from one transmitted by Western Union automatic telegraph, showing that, as machines are installed, graphic charts may be sent from one city to another. Service is now available only in New York, Buffalo, and Chicago. Other cities will be added.

Graphic charts present