a8 Si Siete Peruri ae Desoenah re. ) ae : me 3 ; a E ‘ jana ers ee a < mde : : he wes : ° ae o see g -" “ ‘ — ~ * os

~ os < Ramen sy

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eee “PEt Sse te eg els

a a Jere lacs he z

Mfg aay Pete Feeling aa, = - ee ore

i

PUBLISHED MONTHLY. No. 3

II.

NOVEMBER, 9II.

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. (For Complete List of Contents see page vii.)

m of Pp ecunical Rdvice for Farmers, and the

hath of Wool for Market. Ve W. Collinson gin Spain. E.7. Brown ~ - i % System of Farming -_ -

acine Wheat, Oats and Maire: in the United States

of Fowls for Egg Production - eavation in France

= ° =

ti and other Regulations - yr Agricultural Machinery Abroad

cr Crop Bou Abroad _ e of Animal Diseases on the Continent

J Hirings in Scotland Labour in England during October

arkets in October. C. Kains-Jackson - Dead Meat Trade in October. A. T. Matthews

ision Trade in Cerner Hedley Stevens Tables, &c. - os

Hes, LONDON: he PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE ¥ R, CLAY & SONS, Lrv., Brunswick STREET, StaMFORD STREET, 8. E.. ee ie BY THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES, “AGENTS FOR ADVERTISEMENTS

LAUGHTON & Co., Limited,

3, WELLINGTON STREET, STRAND,

W.C.

The Highest Standard |

Horticultural Accessories

Compare any ‘‘Enots” article with the imitation. Note how well and substantially made the ‘‘ Enots” one is; see and appreciate its exclusive, useful features; observe the work- manlike finish.

Your sound judgment will then tell you whether the ‘‘Hnots” is the better article or not, though the imi- tation may be slightly cheaper.

*Enots’’ Specialities have 86 years’ reputation for Quality, Service, and Value for money. Catalogue free.

Benton & Stone,

Established 1825,

BRACEBRIDGE ST., BIRMINGHAM.

= =i

f

erie vey

ite : ‘

ie Vi

A Customer writes: |& “Please send a dozen of ‘or noted: ‘ Vitalis,’ which we fin # impossible to do without.”

When you buy Tipper’s “ VITALIS” tle iy immediately established, for you a re ay

about which you need take no chances The most suitable drink for every-de) iby | ments of the Farm or Stable. Can bel vel with perfect safety and the most firm bie taf | at

having a beneficial effect in Chills, Colla fluenza, and other diseases in which a ie temperature usually occurs; also for Bilaguse tion, Retention of Urine, Flatulent Lia, Gareet, Blown, etc.

Write for Free Book, or send P.O. to-fa; mora

\, Case of 12 Bottles, 30/- Sale fea

E S Tipps

| VETERINARY CHEMIC/\0 ; BIRMING 4) @

pee Potatoes |

_

~ Seed Potatieg

SPECIAL OF IB: THIS SEASIN

eyed ae in Full.

| THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,—Advertisements, i

Ch | In all Every |Sizes to Suit Requirement. f

MLOUGHS « CULTIVATORS

Catalogues Free on Application to

JANSOMES. SIMS ¢ JEFFERIES, Ltd.,

ORWELL WORKS, IPSWICH.

DOI

she death-warrant of Slugs, Wire j/orms, Leather-jackets and kindred field and garden pests.

“I feared trouble from wireworms. . . . Heaps of them were tured up in ploughing, so I knew they were there ; but I have not seen a-sign of them since.” That is the experience of a practical man, with a thoroughly technical knowledge of agricultural matters, after using Vaporite. Full particulars of Vaporite and its uses are contained in our free Booklet No. 50. May we send you a copy? Quantity required, 2 to 3 cwt. per acre. Price £9 per ton (carriage paid on 2-ton lots or more). Trial quantities, 11/6 per cwt. (carr. paid).

Ihe VAPORITE STRAWSON GO., Ltd. (Dept. K), Spencer House, s. South Place, London, E.C.

ii THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements. |

s

ESTABLISHED 1838.

WHEAT SOW

Bikps ROOKS. ‘VER x DOWN'S | FARMERS FRIEVE

THE GREAT

BIRD DISGUSTEK

And well-known Preventive of

SMUT IN WHEA/T BARLEY, OATS, &c.

THE BEST & CHEAPEST SEED DREMIN ON THE MARKET. iL ie

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After the Seed Corn has been drjseé with DOWN’S FARMERS’ FRIEND, it ch it to become obnoxious and distasté Rooks, Small Birds, and other farm} A7d. packetis sufficient for Six bushels

R. W. GREEN

Has again grown both in

SCOTLAND & ENGLAND

every leading variety of

SEED POTATOES

and solicits enquiries.

t ’

CORNHILL, WISBECH.

POTATO SPROUTING BOXES,

for Early and Late Planting. Delivered at Small Cost to South and West Coasts of England, Wales and Scotland. GEORGE PERRY & CO. LTD.,

CAMDEN ROW, DUBLIN.

Dp Fo ep:

=.

Proprietor and Manufacturer :

FRED“ W. DOW!, WOBURN SANDS, BEDS, | Z

WILTS UNITED DAIRIES, U0

W. J. CAMPBELL, SIBSTER, DALKEITH, MIDLOTHIAN,

OFFERS FINEST SCOTCH SEED POTATOES. $3; ALBERT EMESKe Es. (Oa

are always open to Purchase Rife

In writing to advertisers, readers will confer a * ot favour by mentioning ‘‘ The Journal of the Board of Dairies of well-cooled M Agriculture” as the source of their information. : -

TREES aed

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Comprising one of the Largest, Hardiest, Healthiest, and most select stocks in Europ Inspection invited. GRASS SEEDS for all Purposes, Situations, and Soils. ROOT SEED GRAIN from Pedigree Stocks. SEED POT. VEGETABLE SEEDS. FLOWER SEEDS. BULBS, &c., &c.

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a - HONIG & MOCK, pug LGNDON, B.C. Se A PET

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a4 — =

pac! | GUARANTEES :—42 per cent. Phosphate of Lime, all available for Plant Food.

a 80 per cent. soluble in 2 per cent. Citric Acid Solution.

a | 85 per cent. Fineness through sieve having 10,000 basil holes to the square inch.

nf CURE ALFRED HICKMAN, LIMITED.

For all particulars apply to LONDON OFFICE,

= Mark Lane, E.C., W. HYDE BARNETT.

Telegrams and Cables—‘‘ TETRABASIC, LONDON.” Telephone—1121 CENTRAL.

vos SUYING AGENTS WANTED WHERE UNREPRESENTED!!!

CATALOGUES a FREE. = ORE

Please mention this sie

. ~ ‘

iv THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements,

“A TRUE PLANT ae FOOD.”

Gives immense in= crease in CORN,

Insist on ‘*Four Oaks.”

[=

“FOUR OAK

ROOT, and 3

GRASS CROPS Reliable Gold Meda

eee vn tg| | EIMEWASHING A

CROPS, bought from SPRAYING MACHIN all Leading j Yj Uy —

HOPS.

Invaluat

Dealers in for Spra

Manures. Potato

Fruit

Charle

Pamphlets gratis Ca

* from the | Sheept : i y also for

Chilean Nitrate Line

Committee, of eve:

descrij

FRIARS HOUSE, = New Broad Street, 45

LONDON, E.C. ——

PLEASE MENTION THIS JOURNAL. No Rul

Valv

No. 101 FOUR OAKS” Gold Medal All Wor

Patent Knapsack Sprayer.

sh CERES ae i BS : “FOUR 0)

; LIMEWAS ROTPROOF & WATERPROOF

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as illustra

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‘‘The best for estate and farm purposes.”

For WAGGONS, ENGINES, -— MACHINES, &c.

lB Rands & Je ckell, : owl writes :—‘‘ With one of a IPSWICH. |

I have limewashed in one and a half houl Manufacturers by Royal Warrant to H.M. the King.

previously took me three days.”

THE “FOUR OAKS” SPRAYING MACHI

No. 200, Sutton Coldfield, Birming

Vv

_ PUBLICATIONS OF THE BOARD OF , | AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES.

Leaflets.—Single copies of the leaflets issued by the Board can be obtained free

of charge on application to the Secretary, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries,

4, Whitehall Place, London, 8.W. Leaflets Nos. 1 to 100 and Leaflets Nos.

101 to 200 are issued, bound in stiff boards, price 6d. each volume post free.

The leaflets up to No. 200 are also issued in twelve sectional volumes, each

- section containing those dealing with closely related subjects, price ld. per volume, post free. (One set, or 12 volumes, 9d. post free.)

The following is a list of recent leaflets :—

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture is issued on the 15th of each month, and may be ordered, through any bookseller or railway bookstall, from the Board | of Agriculture; or it will be forwarded direct from the Board of Agriculture | and Fisheries, 4, Whitehall Place, London, S.W., at the following rates :—Three

f months, Is. ; six months, 2s.; twelve months, 4s.

= 4

All communications relating to advertisements should be addressed to the Sole | Agents, Mussrs. Lavcuton & Co., Lrp., 3, Wellington Street, Strand, W.C.

Two General Indexes to the Journal have been issued —a General Index to Volumes I.—X. (September, 1894, to March, 1904), price 1/- post free, and a

1 eral Index to Volumes XI.—XVII. (April, 1904, to March, 1911), price 4d. | post tree.

Supplements to the Journal are occasionally issued containing special reports Which are too long to be inserted in the ordinary issue. These supplements are issued free to subscribers to the Journal; the price to non-subscribers is 4d. each post free. The following supplements have appeared up to the present :—

No. 1 (January, 1908). Report on Agricultural Education in the | United States. No. 2 (December, 1908). The Food of Some British Birds.

No, 3 (April, 1910). Reports on the Work of the International Agricultural Institute.

No. 4 (June, 1910). Wheat: Papers read at a Meeting of the British : Association at Winnipeg, 1909.

_ No. 5 (January, 1911). Influence on the Production of Mutton of a Manures applied to Pasture.

No. 6 (July, 1911). Report on the Work of the International Agri- cultural Institute.

No. 7 (October, 1911). The Interpretation of the Results of Agri- cultural Experiments.

vi THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisement

(asso DOUBLE THe FERTILITY of YOUR L D

BY SOWING XV TOOGOOD’S BETTER SEED) .

WHEAT & OATS)

THEIR WONDERFUL RESULTS are evidenced for YOU by many hundreds of unsolicited letters similar to the following |

‘¢ GENTLEMEN, Loampits, Bisley, Ist August, 1911. You may be interested in the result of my crop of Black | Tartarian Oats, grown from seeds purchased from you. The crop is being photographed, as it is judged by experts in agriculture to be the sight of the year in this neighbourhood. ‘The straw is stout, well grown and proportionate, some of it being over 6 ft. long including the ears, while some of the ears measure from 10 to 125 ins. in length. It is estimated to produce HIGHTY | BUSHELS PER ACRE. I remain, Gentlemen, Faithfully yours, G. PAYNE, Captain.”

Write for Free Samples of TOOGOOD’S BETTER SEED WHEAT AND SEED OATS. and see for yourself. There is no obligation to buy.

EVERY SEED SOLD ON APPROVAL if you get it from

| 1006000 '% SONS, SSuTHAMPTON

“NITROGEN FROM THE AIR”

The CHEAPEST and BEST Nitrogenous Manure:

NITROLIM

(CALCIUM CVANAMIDE)

Guaranteed Aanleeis 137 NEoEee

For Agricultural, Horticultural and Market Garden Use.

NO PAINT-OR TAR_REG

NORTH-WESTERN GYANAMIDE o.,| [ff ENGLISH BRG

WISBECH

PLEASE MENTION THIS ®&

40, EASTCHEAP, LONDON, E.¢. “"?”

Stocks held in London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol Plymouth, Glasgow, Leith, Dublin, Gc.

CONTENTS.

Provision or TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS, AND THE INVESTIGATION OF LocaL AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS

Tur CULTIVATION OF ONIONS 2 ces ie E) Preparation or Woon ror Marker. J. W. Collinson FarmMine In Spain. #. T. Brown q _ The Elliot System of Farming

Theories of Plant Nutrition ti Cost of Producing Wheat, Oats, and Mais i in ihe United Stee ae Selection of Fowls for Egg Production ... Mushroom Cultivation in France... International Dairy Congress The Agricultural Estates belonging to ire Grown

- Wart Disease of Potatoes. (With Illustration) Bs es 2: A Cucumber and Melon Disease New to Britain. (With Illustration) International Statistical Institute

Summary of Agricultural Experiments ... Flow of Air and Water through Soils—Absorption. of Ammonia from the Atmosphere—Calcium Cyanamide and Nitrate of Lime— —Green Manuring—Use of Lime—Experiments with Nitrogenous Top-dressings —The Woburn Pot-Culture Experiments, 1909—Manur- ing of Old Pasture—Green Manuring—Manuring of Mangolds— Improvement of Old Pasture—Manurial Experiments—Breeding of Rust-Resistant Wheats—Heating of Hay Ricks—Varieties of ) OAT Wheat—Varieties of Lucerne—Growth of Sugar Beet—Elliot System 0 Duy | of Laying Down Grass—The Inheritance of Milk Yield in Cattle— | Effect of Cocoa-nut Cake and Linseed Cake on the Composition of Batter Fat—Colouring of Milk—Mortality among Calves—Acute a Contagious Mastitis in Cows due to the Bacillus Laciis Aerogenes. TO} ) Official Notices and Circulars __... eh BBs a 2 a 7 Recreation Grounds allotted under the Inclosure Acts—The | Interpretation of the Results of Agricultural Experiments — Foot- ; and-Mouth Disease in Somerset. _— Importation and other Regulations : Importation of Live Stock into the United eee ie of 5 Plants, Bees, and Exotic Animals into South Africa—Importation } into Sweden of Animal Products from Countries Infected with Foot- * and-Mouth Disease. A, | Demand for Agricultural Machinery Abroad / | Duty-free Admission of Machinery and Fertilisers into Turkey— Agricultural Machinery in Manchuria—Agricultural Machinery in Siberia. Notes on Agriculture Abroad _... aes i Agricultural Societies in ‘Poland— —Agricultural Co- -operation in Germany—Legislation as to Agricultural Produce in Denmark— Live Stock in Mexico—Agricultural Experiment Stations in Germany—Possibility of an Export of British Pedigree Cattle to va Brazil. “<< Notes on the Weather in October .# | Produce of Hops... Produce of Corn, Pulse, id Hay Caan ust Crop Conditions in Great Britain on November see ast | Notes on Crop Prospects Abroad

Prevalence of Animal Diseases on the Continent

)D EN Agricultural Hirings in Scotland . ha

NG Agricultural Labour in England duking October Wy aa Tub Corn Markers iv Ocronrr. C. Kains-Jackson 530M Tx Live anp Drap Meat TRADE IN OctosEer. A. 7. Meithews TH TE Provision TrapE rn Ocroper. Hedley Stevens ge Wtpic. of Agricultural Produce .. (SAD | Diseases of Animals BN wise picstied Contents of Periodicals ... » 10" y 4

a to the Library ...

Te

PAGE

633 638 643

. 645

650 653 655 659 665 666 668° 669 670 671 673

683

686

690

691

696 _ 697 698 699 700 702 703 704 705 707 709 711 716 717 718

viii THE JOURNAL OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.— Advertisements b | i

¢

BY APPOINTMENT:

BY APPOINTMENT aS

FISONS’.

(IPSWICH)

FERTILIZERS

‘*“THE BEST IN THE WORLD.”

THE WORLD’S CHAMPION BARLEY

was grown by Mr. A. E. Booth, of Sydmonton, ball Newbury, with Fisons’ Fertilizer in 1911.

Kee | ay

Write for particulars of Autumn Fertilizers to—

JOSEPH FISON & CO., Lrp

Covered Tarde for Catle

We Specialise in all kinds of ECONOMICAL STEEL ROOFING for FARMS and ESTATES.

Cart Sheds, Stock Yards, Iron and Wire Fencing @ 7

Drawings and Estimates Free.

BOULTON & PAUL, Lid., NORWIM

|

ge:

_® THE JOURNAL

; i ag 2

ries SRL WIS, BOARD OF AGRICULTURE

Vol. XVIII. No. 8.

NOVEMBER, 1911.

BeerislON . OF TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS, AND THE INVESTIGATION OF Eee AGRICULTURAL. PROBLEMS:

The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have been in- formed that the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty's Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Com.- missioners, have sanctioned payment from the Development Fund of a sum not exceeding £12,000 per annum to be dis- tributed by the Board as Grants to certain Universities and Colleges in England and Wales for the purpose of assisting these Institutions to supply technical advice to farmers and to provide for the investigation of local agricultural problems.

_ Nature of the Technical Advice to be Supplied. In order that the character of the work covered .by this grant may be understood, it may be convenient to refer in the first place to the Memorandum on the Principles and Methods of Rural Education * issued by the Board of Educa- tion, Chapter 9, in which it is stated that :— ~ This work (i.e., the provision of technical information and

| advice for those engaged in rural industry) is of a kind that _ should fall partly to county staffs and partly to those of

Universities and Agricultural Colleges. It is clear that

| advice of two kinds will be in demand in every district; in _ the first place, the kind of advice on the uses of manures, _ the relative merits of feeding stuffs, on the manufacture of | dairy produce, which inexperienced persons constantly _tequire, and which any well-prepared instructor should be

| * To be obtained from Wyman & Sons, Ltd., Fetter Lane, E.C. Price, 3d. ; by post, 4d.

RX

:

634 PROVISION OF TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS. [NOV.,

competent to supply; and in the second place advice in more difficult matters sought, not by the inexperienced alone, but. by experienced cultivators, which cannot always be supplied by ordinary instructors, because special knowledge or special investigation is necessary before advice can be given. The county staff should make a practice of referring such special problems to specialists.”

The provision of special advice far agriculturists has in the past taken a somewhat minor place in the work of the Uni- ' versities and Agricultural Colleges, and has usually been — dependent on the inclination and qualifications of certain rt members of the staff. The Board are convinced, however, — that there is a real necessity for work of this character, and _ that its provision should receive careful attention at the hands _ of University and College Authorities. It is to assist them in | supplying the second type of advice referred to above, viz., — that of a special character, that the present grant has been | made. |

It is not desired that the Institutions should undertake the task of replying to inquiries of a straightforward character | which may properly be dealt with by the County Staff, but od rather that they should devote themselves to the solution of more difficult problems which demand not merely skill and experience in agriculture, but special scientific knowledge and = (raining. a4. -|

t must be recognised that the function of Departments of Agriculture of Universities and Colleges is not merely to provide the highest grade of agricultural instruction for their students, but also to act as centres of information and inves= tigation in the counties with which they are associated. q Ry

Arrangements are now being made for the separate ex- penditure of considerable sums on Institutions for the promo- ; 1 tion of Agricultural Research,* and it will be necessary that 1 the Universities and Agricultural Colleges should be familiar : with the work done under this head in order that it may be 3 brought to bear without delay on practical agricultural ques- | tions. In applying the results of research, many problems occur which are essentially of a local character and can on be investigated satisfactorily on the spot. The object of

* See Memorandum on the Promotion of Agricultural Research, Journal, Oct IQII, p. 545.

I911.] PROVISION OF TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS. 635

present Grant is to provide a means of dealing with such local problems. On the other hand, questions not peculiar to any locality can be dealt with more conveniently, and w vith a minimum of effort, at a Research Institution.

Cases will no doubt arise where this distinction cannot easily be drawn, and some overlapping may be unavoidable. It is, however, essential that the staffs of the institutions to be aided by the grants under consideration should utilise as far aS possible the services of the Research Institutions instead of making separate inquiries into subjects which are already wholly or in part under investigation elsewhere.

Demand for Technical Assistance.

There is reason to believe that the existing demand for special assistance for the investigation of difficult local problems will very greatly increase in future.

In the first place, the Board hope that the Instructors employed by ‘Local Authorities will to a greater degree than hitherto refer these difficult problems to institutions specially equipped for investigation, and will consult the Staffs of Uni. versities and Colleges in regard to questions on which their scientific knowledge and experience is likely to be valuable. The Board of Education have drawn attention to this point in the Memorandum quoted above, and the practice is one which should be generally adopted.

The grants which will be distributed by the Board of Education in aid of Farm Institutes are likely to lead in many cases to an augmentation of the County Staff, and an exten- Sion in the demand for expert advice may be expected as the number of persons employed in Instruction increases.

With the increasing attention paid to agricultural educa- tion, moreover, direct applications from agriculturists for advice are likely to become more numerous. Experience in the past has shown that the more the work of a College becomes known to farmers, the more disposed they are to consult the College Staff, and if systematic arrangements for ? the supply of trustworthy information are made, consultations will become very common. To gain the confidence of farmers it in this way it is necessary to convince them that the College : + Staff is able to advise not merely in regard to the general Principles of cultivation ane management which are within

peop

eet. c=

636 PROVISION OF TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS. [NOV., a

the knowledge of skilled farmers, but as to difficulties which lie outside ordinary experience, and which may demand exhaustive investigation and patient research.

Character of the Staff.

The range of subjects on which advice may be sought is very wide, and no single institution can be expected to pro- vide specialists in all branches, but provision should be made for the supply of expert advice in those branches of agricul- ture and its allied industries which are of the greatest im- 7 portance in the area served by the College. For this purpose the staff should be strengthened by the addition of officers who will chiefly devote themselves to this special type of work, but there would be no objection to the utilisation of | their services to some extent in teaching, provided that other members of the staff gave approximately the same amount of time to advisory work. A certain elasticity in the staff would .— thus be secured and a wider range of subjects covered.

In this connection it must be remembered that many in- quiries on agricultural subjects, especially those likely to be made by the smaller or less experienced cultivators as regards dairying, poultry keeping, and gardening, can quite well be — dealt with by the County Staff, to whom they should be | referred. The object of the collegiate institutions should be | to deal with the more difficult questions requiring special knowledge. .

4

~~

Qualifications of the Staff. .

The success of the scheme depends on the selection of the right type of men. The Governing Bodies of Institutions | should, therefore, be careful in recruiting their staff to secure men who have received a thorough scientific training, and | who will be capable of carrying out investigations both in the — laboratory and in the field. They should be familiar ee the technique that may be necessary in dealing with their special branch, and be capable of closely following the latest - developments in science both at home and abroad. S|

- = Panes

As explained above, it will be the duty of the consultative | f staff to keep in close touch with the Research Institutions, | Me and in considering the qualifications required this factor | Mey should be borne in mind. In many cases it is to this advisory ’

as

staff that the task will fall of first attempting to put into prac

I911.] PROVISION OF TECHNICAL ADVICE FOR FARMERS. 637

tice the results of investigations made at the Research Institutions.

On the other hand, men appointed for this work either must have, or must be prepared to acquire, a good working know- ledge of one or more branches of agriculture, for in this way only can they gain the confidence of agriculturists and be able to meet them on an equal footing as regards the practical operations of the farm. With a good general experience they should soon be able to acquire a knowledge of local methods.

Conditions of Grant.

1. Grants from this fund will only be made to certain selected Institutions, not exceeding twelve in number, in Eng- land and Wales, the Governing Bodies of which will be invited to submit schemes to the Board on the general lines indicated above.

2. The grant in each case will be a grant-in-aid only. It must be used for the purpose of extending and developing special advisory work, and not for the purpose of lightening existing expenditure.

3. It will be open to any Institution to employ members of its present staff on this advisory work, but in that case their places must be filled by fresh appointments to the teaching staff.

4. The Board will require to be satisfied that the men pro- posed to be employed on this work possess the necessary qualifications, and that the salaries paid them are adequate in the circumstances. The men appointed should have given promise of achieving distinction in scientific work, and be such as might be expected to attain to the higher posts at Universities and University Colleges if they adopted teaching as a profession. To secure men of this type, who have also had subsequent practical experience, it will be necessary to offer adequate salaries, though the actual amount may vary according to age and experience. The Board will be pre- pared from time to time to consider proposals for an increase in the grant to meet such increments of salary as may become necessary owing to the appointment in the first instance of comparatively junior men.

| _ 5. The men employed on advisory work may be allowed to

| do a certain amount of teaching in consideration of the fact

638 THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS. “[ NOV;

that they may possess exceptional knowledge of certain sub- jects; but inasmuch as their principal duties will be tocarry | on the advisory and investigation work for which the grant is made, the Institution will be required to see that teaching does not absorb any undue amount of time and that equivalent assistance is given to them by other members of the staff.

6. In view of the fact that the Agricultural Departments and Colleges are intended to provide information, when neces- sary, for the County Agricultural Staffs, some assistance from Local Education Authorities may be anticipated, and in fixing the grants to be paid to Institutions the Board will have. regard to any evidence, such as grants-in-aid promised by counties, indicating that the advisory work undertaken by the — Institutions is appreciated locally. 3 *

7. Each Institution in receipt of a grant from this fund will wt be expected to undertake the advisory work in a group of * counties. While it will not be required to investigate pro- | blems arising outside its area, it will be expected to assist, by 4 advice, any County Instructor from another district who may 3 apply for information. |

8. Members of the Advisory Staff of an Institution in receipt of a grant will be expected to act as Correspondents of the Board for their district.

Oe:

THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS.

ore iia idl cli

The most suitable soil for onions is a rich medium scat loam, though any good light soil, even of a gravelly or silty | nature, will produce good crops. Clay and clay loams should be avoided where possible, though moderate crops | can sometimes be obtained on land of this type. Newl

lig

broken up grass land is quite unsuitable, not only because y the crop will be liable to various insect attacks, but ale x re ME

because this soil produces “thick-necked”’ onions, that is to | i MG

says, plants in which the parts above ground increase heavily 4 in bulk at the expense of the bulb. Good results have, | however, been obtained on grass land in the third seasoi n | after it had been broken up. F y 4 Preparation of the Land.—The land should be hoa Mh freed from weeds and well stirred before any sowing is done

IQ{I.] THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS. 639

The importance of thorough cultivation cannot be over- estimated, and perhaps the greatest mistake in onion growing is the neglect of this precaution.

The land should be cultivated in October or November, and left in a rough state, so that it may benefit from the action of frost during the winter. Some growers recommend a deep “two-spit” trenching, but others consider that a “one-spit ” digging or ploughing of about six inches in depth is sufficient. The choice between the two methods depends largely upon the rotation practised. If onions are grown at all frequently on the same land, trenching is without doubt the better plan.

A difference of opinion also exists on the subject of manuring. Some growers apply a dressing of good half- rotten stable or cow manure, say Io tons to the acre, while others, who are equally successful, use artificial manures only. Some of the Bedfordshire growers have been known to apply as much as 50 tons of half-rotten stable manure to the acre.

Manure should not be allowed to lie on the land for any length of time, as this encourages insects; fresh farmyard manure should never be used.

The advocates of the “two-spit” and cow-manure principle

recommend, where the grower has only stiff land at his dis- posal, the addition of a mixture of wood and cinder ashes with basic slag or lime to the top spit, in the proportion of 7 ewt. of ashes and 10 cwt. of lime or basic slag to the acre, in addition to a good dressing of short mellow manure. It is not uncommon for onions to follow a crop of celery. The rotation by this. method would be:—(1) Early crop Of potatoes or cabbage, the land being cleared in July; (2) crop of celery; (3) onions. The advantage of this method is that the extra cultivation of the land, owing to the Senstant “moulding up” of the celery, and. the heavy Manuring of the trenches, serve to bring the soil into an excellent condition to receive the onion seed. The land, as soon as the celery is off, should be dug and left until February or March. Good results are also obtained with onions follow ‘ing corn, cabbage, carrots, or parsnips.

Preparation for Sowing.—A dressing of 5 cwt. of super- phosphate, and from 3 to 4 cwt. of soot to the acre, is recom- mended. Soot is particularly valuable. Other artificial

640 THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS. A NOW es

manures recommended are salt and potash. For a light soil, weak in potash, kainit at the rate of 5 cwt. to the acre may be added with advantage.

The land should be forked and reduced to a fine tith 7d he surface should be then bently raked, and the land is ready for sowing.

Sowing and After-Cultivation.—A day should be chosen when the land is dry and workable. The seed should be sown thinly in drills about 9 in. apart and an inch in depth. The seed thus required will be from 5 to 7 lb. per acre, depending upon the variety. The seed must be raked in lightly, and the back. of the rake is sometimes used for this purpose. The ground should then be rolled, and again directly the plants are up in the rows, if the weather is dry. Another dressing of soot or one of nitrate of soda is sometimes recommended at this point. Hoeing lightly is advisable to — check seedling weeds and to sweeten the surface soil.

As soon as the plants are large enough to handle, they may — be thinned out as required, leaving a space of from 4 to 6 inches between the plants. The labour of this operation is often reduced by cross-hoeing. If the plants are still too dense, thinning out by hand should be resorted to, though this is rare in good cultivation for market purposes. |

The hoe should be kept constantly in use, to prevent the growth of weeds. In a damp season, when the tops appear to be making too much growth, it is advisable to bend them over with the hoe handle or something similar. Towards the middle of August it is advisable to determine, by pulling up a few bulbs, whether the crop is ready for gathering. If such be the case, the roots will be noticed to have withered. This prevents the possibility of what is known as second growth, | namely, that of the new bud, lying between the swollen leaf bases of the bulb. _

Gathering and Storage —Having determined, in the way | mentioned above, when the crop is ready, the gathering should be done on the first fine dry day. A few rows are pulled, and the bulbs allowed to lie. Then the few rows on either side of these are pulled, and the bulbs from the outside rows placed with those lying in the centre, so that one gee alternate alleys of drying onions and of bare land. z

roti. THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS. 641

During the drying, should the weather be showery, the bulbs should be constantly stirred, to prevent second growth and the formation of fresh roots. When the bulbs are per- fectly dry, they should be collected and stored either on the barn floor, or on specially constructed drying shelves. These shelves are placed along the length of the barn—one above the other, as in a book case—and are constructed of 3 in. laths placed lengthways about I in. or 1% in. apart, to allow the air to penetrate freely. The bulbs should be moved about ence a week, to avoid “sweating,” or dampness of the crop.

Growing for Exhibttion.—When growing for exhibition purposes, seed pans or shallow boxes, filled with a light loam compost, should be prepared and placed in a frame or in a cold greenhouse to be protected from winter frosts. The seed should be sown thinly in December or January, and liberally, though not excessively, watered. As soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, they should be pricked out singly into small pots and replaced in the frame.

When the weather is suitable, as soon as possible after the middle of March, they should be permanently planted out, in a sunny position sheltered from the cold winds, in rows 9g in. tO 12 in. apart, the distance between plant and plant in the row being also 9g in. to 12 in. A liberal supply of liquid manure (a weak solution of sheep or cow manure with soot in suspension) should be applied once a week. The greatest care should be taken in handling the bulbs, as the forcing Causes the skin to be very tender, and the slightest bruise will cause their early decay.

Growing Pickling Onions.—There are several differences

_ in cultivation when onions are grown for pickling. In this

case, the soil is prepared in exactly the same way, but the

drills are 7 in. apart, and a much larger quantity of seed is, _ used; no thinning of the young seedlings is required. Thus | the density of the crop and the struggle for existence prevent _ , the bulbs from attaining any but a pickling size. Asa rule,

_ however, large onion growers grade out the small bulbs for

1 Pickling purposes rather than make a special cultivation.

In preparing for pickling, the small onions should be

_ Steeped in boiling water for a short time, then drained and

—_ + ree | ee

allowed to cool. This makes peeling much easier. The

~

642 THE CULTIVATION OF ONIONS. —_—_[NOV., | a onions should then be steeped in a strong solution of common: salt for about a day, then carefully drained, and allowed to dry thoroughly. Finally, they should be put in bottles con-_ taining vinegar, which has been well spiced: with cloves, | _ peppercorns, coriander, ginger, &c. Production of Pickling Onions in Holland.—The growing od of pickling onions on a large scale suffers rather severely @ from competition from Holland, and owing te various repre-_ sentations made to the Board of Agriculture as to the serious _ effects of composition from this source, investigations * were undertaken by the Board in the year 1902, which showed that the social and economic conditions under which the industr was conducted in the Netherlands differed in many respects _ from those existing in this country. a These differences, however, were not sufficient at thet tim to enable the brining factories to place their goods on our markets at prices persistently lower than those at which | English goods have been quoted, and, in fact, the evidence collected by the Board, both in the Netherlands and in this | country, went to show that the prices paid by pickling firms | for first quality Dutch silverskins in brine delivered in Londo; were, in some seasons, higher even than those a fo home produce. The secret of the success of the Dutch i petition was considered to lie mainly in the fact that t onions exported from the Netherlands presented, on the whole, a better appearance, and met more readily the require- ments of the pickling firms, because more effective meth and greater care were employed in their preparation — brining. These methods are described in the report, and account is given of onion cultivation in Holland. | Onion Pesis.—The two principal pests of the onion, 7 viz., onion fly and onion mildew, are dealt with in the Boar leaflets, Nos. 31 and 178. ; Varieties of Onions Recommended.—(a) For Market. Pu

poses: White Spanish, Bedfordshire Champion, Giam Zittau, Nuneham Park, Rousham Park Hero. (b) For Bx hibition Purposes: Ailsa Craig, Southampton Champion, Golden Globe. (c) For Pickling Purposes: Silverskin, Queen Pickling. _

* Report on the Dutch Brined Vegetable Industry. (Cd. 1368, 1902. Price 8d fey

|

I9II.] PREPARATION OF WOOL FOR MARKET. 643

PREPARATION OF WOOL FOR. MARKET. J. W. COLLINSON.

In view of the great competition in the trade in wool and

the excellence of the conditions under which the colonial

produce is placed on the market, it is more than ever im- portant that flockmasters should pay careful attention to the cleanliness of the fleeces in order that the wool may not suffer depreciation in price owing to careless preparation. Among the points to be borne in mind are the following :—

Winter Feeding.—When rack-feeding of hay or clover begins in the winter, great care should be taken that the sheep can obtain the food without its getting into the wool on their necks or backs, as it is practically impossible to remove seeds and fine fibres afterwards.

Washng and Shearing.—Every sheep ought to be thoroughly “clagged” or “burled”’ before it is washed. Under whatever conditions the sheep are washed, it is essen- tial that they should have a good “swim,” the wool being lifted by hand or by “poying poles”? made for the purpose, and which are now in use in some districts. A large amount of grease and dirt is got rid of in this way. Where there is a choice of water, the softest should always be used.

After washing, the sheep should be got on to grass land as soon as possible. Driving along a road should be avoided wherever practicable. Fields with bare patches of soil or roadways ought to be avoided until after the sheep are shorn. Not more than seven to ten days should be allowed to elapse between washing and shearing, as the natural grease in the animal soon begins to rise, and then the wool quickly becomes very little better than ‘“‘ unwashed.”

On no account should the sheep be clipped when the wool is not thoroughly dry. The underneath portions are most likely to be damp, especially in long-woolled sheep, and when the wool is wound, this part being inside the fleece, and hence excluded from the air, soon begins to “‘heat”’ and rot.

_ Sheep, if housed prior to shearing, should be ‘‘ bedded ” with

| bean or wheat straw in preference to that of oats or barley.

The shearing should be done on a clean floor, or on a

_| Stack-cloth if in the open air. The practice of mowing the

644 PREPARATION OF WOOL FOR MARKET. [NOV.,

grass where sheep are to be shorn, even if it is carefully swept before the shearing, is most undesirable. It is im- | possible to remove all the pieces of grass, and these get into the fleece, and, being almost like threads, cannot be removed, - and cause much labour and loss in the future processes — through which the wool has to pass. All earth-lumps or dung should be removed before the wool is “wound.” 3

Locks, tailings, skin-wool, blacks, cotts, or greasy wool must be kept separate and never put inside the fleeces. To do otherwise constitutes “false-winding.” :

Branding of Sheep.—The use of tar or paint is very objec- tionable for branding, and such substances should be used as sparingly as possible, and if the brand is not placed on the ear or face, then it should be put immediately above the tail of the animal. In many cases much too large a branding. | iron isin use. There is some reason to hope that before long — a material that will stand as a “mark,” and yet be soluble in hot water, will be discovered. If sucha material were obtain-— able and were universally used, the loss which manufacturers | suffer under present conditions would be avoided.

Methods of Tying Fleeces.—The fleece should be “wound ” on aclean wooden table, and should be tied with a “band” made by twisting a portion of the fleece itself. Most farmers | tie up their fleeces in this way, but in & few western and southern counties string or binder-twine is used for the pur- pose. This is most objectionable, especially in the case ot | “binder-twine,” which is loosely made, and consequently | “frays” and gets into the wool. The loss entailed by this practice in the after-processes is very serious, as the most careful supervision fails to find the small particles, which get into the cloth, causing endless annoyance and trouble.

Storage of Wool.—The wool should be stored in a dry) chamber or granary, and be piled clear of all the walls a carefully covered in order to keep out the dust.

Rats and mice should be kept from it if possible, as where} they have access they carry corn and other materials into it, and in other ways injure the wool. | |

Dips.—In the selection of dips, care should be taken to use only those that do not permanently stain the wool zo) injure the fibre.

191 1] FARMING IN SPAIN. 645

FARMING IN SPAIN. Be to BROWN:

THE traveller who is familiar with Northern or Central Spain regards the country as comparatively poor from an agricultural point of view, chiefly consisting of mountains and large tracts of almost valueless soil; whereas he who knows the South, the fertile and luxuriant Andalusia, par- ticularly the district in the neighbourhood of Malaga, where olives, lemons, oranges, and the sugar cane abound, naturally looks upon Spain as perhaps the most favoured

- agricultural spot in all the world, a country that is, in truth, flowing with milk and honey. In a few respects the Spanish farmer takes advantages of his opportunities; in a great

Many respects, however, he fails to do so. In the Basque

and Asturian Provinces the methods employed are the same _as those introduced by the Celts and Cantabrians; in Cata-

lonia and the Provinces bordering on the Mediterranean there is little or no improvement upon the methods practised by the Greeks and Carthaginians, the latter of whom domi- nated Spain during the years 238 to 200 B.c._ The cultivation

of the olive and vine is identically similar to that described

in the Old Testament, while the plough and the other rude

agricultural implements in use are the same as those to be

seen On the monuments of Egypt and Asia Minor.

Beiore all else Spain is an agricultural country. Possess- ing as it does in many districts a light and easily cultivated soil, a favourable combination of intense heat and a sufficient

supply of moisture, and an entire absence of late frosts,

agriculture naturally flourishes, besides which the Spaniard has always preferred farming to trade. Until within com-,

'_Paratively recent years Spain has been constantly at war,

i

and this, coupled with the fact that roads are few and at times well-nigh impassable, has prevented the steady develop- ment of trade. Trade, moreover, has always been regarded

_by the Spaniard as unworthy his attention, while farming,

_ On the other hand, has ever been considered a gentleman’s

\

j es | i

pursuit. Intensive rather than extensive farming is the rule, and since Spain is a thinly populated country there are

ne SAP Re

646 FARMING IN SPAIN. [Nov.,

enormous tracts of lands which are almost uninhabited, which could support ten times their present population. This intensive farming is again largely due to the fact. that - Spaniards have always been a fighting nation, and “even when permanent conquests fixed them anywhere their farm- __ houses became castles, their meadows fields of battle, and their ploughmen and drovers fighting men. Thus a peasantry, all guerillos to the bone, living amid perpetual — border warfare, exposed to the raids of the Christians, and the talas of the Moors, was not likely to possess artificial — pasture and forests.”’

During the last few years there have been several indica- tions of improved methods of farming in Spain, and the” Government is helping to some extent. Spain has nos | Ministry devoted exclusively to agricultural affairs, which are managed by the “Direccion general de Agricultura, Minas y Montes,” a department of the “Ministerio de Fomento.” — Several Government Schools have been started, while model farms have been established, among other places, at Vittoria, Barcelona, and Aranjuez. Agricultural shows are now held annually in many of the principal cities of Spain, while a few farmers’ clubs have been inaugurated. So far little has been done in the direction of co-operation, though probably this would do more for the Spanish farmer and small-holder than anything else. In many districts the land is mostly occupied by small farmers, the average size of whose | holdings is about seven acres. There are, it is true, many extensive farms, but these are generally worked by the owner, large tenant farmers being extremely uncommon. The Duke of Wellington owns an enormous estate near the town of Granada, and this is in every way a model establishment.

In Northern Spain, where there is comparatively little sun, and where the soil is not particularly fertile, the chief work _ of the farmer is the cultivation of maize and fruit, and the | raising of cattle. Very little corn is grown, and although | there is a considerable area devoted to the vine, the grapes are of poor value, producing an inferior and rather bitter wine. There are, of course, some exceptions to this rule, | notably in parts of Aragon and Catalonia, where some excellent wine is produced. In the Basque Provinces a

IQII.| FARMING IN SPAIN. 647

Galicia, maize is cultivated to a very large extent, where it forms the staple diet of the working people. ‘The maize is sown about May; weeding takes place but once, generally during July, and the grain is harvested in September. Only in the Basque Provinces and in the West are there any hedges, the absence of which renders the countryside harsh and uninteresting. Forests are fairly plentiful, and many of the hills are thickly covered; fruit trees—principally apple and pear—are abundant; a large quantity of very good cider is produced. The cattle in the North are small, with short. horns; few horses are to be seen, most of the draught work being done by cows, which naturally do not yield a very generous supply of milk.

The West of Spain consists mostly of grazing land, and according to the official figures there are under sixty inhabi- tants per square league. Farming in this part of Spain is purely pastoral. The Concejo de la Mesta—a company of sheep proprietors—was established in 1556, and was granted very arbitrary privileges. Towards the end of the sixteenth century this company possessed over 7,000,000 sheep, while to-day it has about 5,000,000. During the summer months the sheep live in the mountains, but they are brought down to the warmer valleys about October, where they remain until March. The sheep are divided into what are termed Cabanas, or huge flocks of about 10,000 head, each being directed by a Mayoral or Merino, who has fifty shepherds under his command. The breed of sheep in Western Spain is called the Merino, after the name of the chief shepherd, and they are now famous the world over for their wool.

The central region of Spain consists of vast treeless plains, interspersed with rocky and barren mountains. Some of the land is excellent, but some consists of almost pure sand, and does not pay to cultivate. This region is the granary of Spain, where corn growing—wheat and barley—is the chiet “occupation of the farmer. The corn is sown broadcast on fallow land, and ploughed in, generally in October or November; in the spring, weeding takes place, and in July _ the grain is ready for harvesting. Cutting with the sickle

and not with the scythe is invariably adopted. In many _ Parts the grain is thrashed in the Biblical fashion by means

648 FARMING IN SPAIN. - ~-[ NO

of treading with mules or oxen. Practically no momen = isa : done, and in many cases the system of cropping is “every — alternate year,’ 1.e., the soil lies fallow for one season and — | produces a crop He next. The form of plough in common 3 i, use is simple in the extreme. It consists of an elm tree, stripped of all its branches save a lower one, which is sharpened and covered with a piece of thin iron; the trunk of the tree is the pole, to which the oxen are attached. Its cost varies from Ios. to 15s., and it weighs about 22 to 24 lb.

The Southern and Eastern districts of Spain are probably — a the most fertile in the: world, and this is indeed the farmer’s ; Eden. For the most part the farms are fairly extensive, — 4

4

= :

q

| a

and are generally worked by the proprietor, though there are a few places where the land is divided up into innumer-_ nae able small holdings. Olive groves, vineyards, orange and lemon orchards, abound everywhere; the sugar cane flourishes” el in the neighbourhood of Malaga; rice and raisins thrive well i and prove profitable crops, while large areas of land are a suitable for cotton growing. In the eighteenth century there — | were produced in the province of Granada in one season — upwards of 300,000 lb. of cotton, while earlier still the Arabs — successfully cultivated the plant on the Andalusian shores. — Its cultivation has for some reason been abandoned, but there | is a movement on foot for its re-introduction. a

Government Action for the Promotion of Agriculture.— The following information as to the action of the Spanish | Government with regard to agriculture during the year 1910 | is given in a recent Foreign Office Report (Annual Series, P| No. 4,749) :—

The past year has witnessed great activity on the part of. | the Ministry of Fomento on behalf of agriculture. Two Bills | of importance were presented to the Cortes during the year. | The first provides for the creation of a “ National Institute of Agricultural Credit.” The institute is to exercise functions — of inspection and control over agricultural credit and insur | ance companies, co-operative societies, irrigation syndicates, &c., established by private enterprise. It is also to establish — banks authorised to advance money to farmers for purely agricultural purposes on mortgage at a rate of interest not exceeding 4 per cent. The second Bill prescribes measures”

IQII.] FARMING IN SPAIN. 649

to be adopted for the suppression of agricultural pests. It provides that, in every municipal district, there shall be established a committee charged with the inspection of agri- cultural and forest lands with a view to the discovery, preven- tion and suppression of pests. All classes of persons em- ployed in agricultural pursuits are to be obliged, under pain of a fine of 50 pesetas (37S.) to report to the committee any cases of pests which may come under their observation. All agriculturists are obliged to adopt such measures as may be prescribed by the committee and sanctioned by the Govern- ment inspectors. A scale of fines is laid down for non- compliance and of compensation for damage suffered by individuals through measures of isolation, &c. Steps are to be taken to spread a knowledge of pests and of the methods of dealing with them. The scheme is to be financed by the formation in each district of a fund which may not exceed 5 per cent. of the capital sum at which the district is assessed for taxation under the heading of “ Agricultural wealth.”

A large number of Royal Orders, dealing with almost every aspect of agricultural life, were also published during the year. One of the most important obliges sellers of natural and chemical manures and fertilisers to guarantee their com- position, and grants to buyers the right of having their pur- chases analysed at the Government agricultural laboratories. Other Royal Orders have for their object the stamping out of locusts, with which several Spanish provinces are now in- fested.

_ Agriculture is, like all-other branches of national activity, to benefit by the scheme for the economic reconstruction of Spain. In addition to that part of the project which refers to irrigation, agriculture is to receive direct advantages in _ the form of a grant of 2,000,000 pesetas (£74,000), to be spent’ / on supplying the existing agricultural schools and experi- | mental stations with modern necessities. Additional estab- | _ lishments of this sort are to be provided for those provinces which do not already possess them, and a school for the train- | ing of agricultural engineers is to be founded.

\ ; i

Ye

650 THE ELLIOT SYSTEM OF FARMING. ~ [NOM

THE Board have recently made arrangements for the ‘3 continuation of the experiments on the laying down of land

to grass which have been carried on tor.

The Elliot System many years by Mr. R. H. Elliot at —

of Farming. Clifton-on-Bowmont, near Kelso.* As

the farm on which they were conducted

has recently been let to a tenant, there was some danger that

the experiments would be brought to a conclusion, but in con-

sideration of a small annual grant the tenant has agreed to

continue the essential features of Mr. Elliot’s system of farm- ing, and to allow agriculturists to visit and inspect the farm.

Clifton-on-Bowmont is situated at the foot of one of the spurs of the Cheviot Hills, a portion of the farm running up — to an elevation of 500 feet, or thereabouts. The soil is poor, | very stony, and liable to deteriorate unless skilfully managed. Owing to its dryness it suffers severely from drought. Since — in these circumstances there is great difficulty in getting a tenant, in 1887 Mr. R. H. Elliot took the farm under direct — management, and resolved to carry out a series of experiments in order to determine the most suitable system of farming to be followed. The first and obvious requirement was té obtain a drought-resisting herbage. After many trials Mr. Elliot eventually devised a mixture which he claims possesses special advantages for the soil and climate of the farm.

This mixture differs from ordinary seed mixtures in that perennial Rye-grass is replaced by Cocksfoot, while it con tains the seeds of a number of drought-resisting plants, such — as Yarrow, Kidney Vetch, Chicory, and Burnet, not ordinarily | found in grass mixtures. The composition of the mixture is | not always the same, but the following may be taken as typical :—Cocksfoot 14 lb., Tall Fescue 7 lb., Tall Oatgrass | 7 lb., Rough-stalked Meadow-grass 1 Ib., late flowering Red Clover 2 lb., White Clover 2 lb., Alsike 1 lb., Burnet 8 Iba) Kidney Vetch 3 tb., ‘Chicory 3 Ib., Yarrow I lb., at a cost (in | 1900) of £1 19s. 3d. or (in Fo11) of about £3 per acre. Vie Elliot is of opinion that the benefits resulting from the use of these plants are due to their deep-rooting habit; he also

4

* An article by Mr. R. H. Elliot on this subject appeared in the /ozz77a/, Vol. VI, . Dec., 1901, and an account of experiments on similar lines at Abbotsley was pu- : lished in the issue for Nov., 1905, Vol. XII. =:

| 4

| } i { |

sat ie ea

~

I91I.| THE ELLIOT SYSTEM OF FARMING. 651

advocates a change in the ordinary rotation of the locality, which is a five-year shift (viz., turnips, oats, seeds, seeds, oats), and claims that better results are obtained by leaving the seeds down for four or five years, to be followed by two successive crops of turnips and oats; that is to say, while under the local system one-fifth of the area is under roots and two-fifths under cereals, Mr. Elliot’s system gives one quarter under roots and one quarter under cereals. He claims that under his system the only manure required is a moderate dressing of artificials with the roots, and that the local system leads to an excessive handling of farmyard manure and an impoverishment of the soil as well.

On the farm at Clifton the visitor can see Mr. Elliot’s mixture at all stages of growth, and can compare it with the pastures obtained by the ordinary methods practised in the neighbourhood. There can be no doubt that in the earlier years Mr. Elliot’s mixtures on certain soils produce a better growth of herbage than the ordinary commercial mixtures, but the former cost more, and further investigation is neces- sary to determine whether the results justify the additional expense.

An inspection of the farm was recently made by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, who has been good enough to furnish the Board with the following observations :—

"We went over a number of the fields, inspecting in particular those that were down in grass. The chief interest in these lies in the fact that here one can see fields laid down in grass according to Mr. Elliot’s system, and which have been in grass for one, two, three and more years, and some even longer. Further, there were opportunities of seeing the difference between the portion of a field that had been hayed and the portion that was fed by sheep and lambs.

“Despite the dry season the first year’s grass was verv vigorous and green. Where a hay crop had been taken, the hay was largely composed of clover, together with kidney vetch and chicory, the cocksfoot not being prominent. In the second year’s growth, after haying the first year, the cocks- foot grows strongly and forms a considerable bulk of the pasture.

“In different fields we were able to see the result of using MiaWinsZ

.552 THE ELLIOT SYSTEM OF FARMING.“ ~ [MOMs

cocksfoot in varying quantities at the time of seeding, the practice being to employ a heavier seeding where the fields are more distant and are intended to lie down longer in grass, ._ while a lighter seeding of cocksfoot is used for those that are to be only three or four years in grass.

“On the ‘in’ fields (those of better nature and nearer the homestead) a five or six years’ course is followed, generally 1, Oats. 2. Roots.” 3. Barley or Oats. 4. Grass for twoume three years, then the grass ploughed up.

“On the ‘out’ fields (those more distant and less able to — carry corn crops) the usual practice is to put into turnips (out. of grass) then take oats, next turnips again, and then lay down to grass in a corn crop, and leave the grass down for some — years. We saw instances of both of these plans. Both root and corn crops were decidedly good. |

“Particularly interesting was ‘Bank Field,’ the soil Giy which has been examined chemically each year since the | field was laid down to grass, in 1900, with Mr. Elliot’s” mixture. It remained in grass from 1900 to 1909, when it was ploughed up and put in roots (1910). The barley crop | of this present year (1911) was an excellent one, and the grass seeding in the barley showed quite a good plant as well. —

“Tn “Little Countridge’ field, turnips taken out of grass were a good level crop, and will be followed by oats. The same applies to the adjoining field ‘ Harewells.’

“On the ‘Island’ field, sown down to grass in 1910, there | was a luxuriant ‘ take’ of grass and, though the area was only | 3% acres, it had kept this season 25 half-bred tups.

“A field of 14 acres, called ‘Chapel Croft,’ had been laid down in 1909 in an oat crop. In 1910 a good hay crop was | taken, and now (1911) it was being fed with sheep, and was | carrying three ewes with twin lambs to the acre. 9 |

“A fine crop of oats was to be seen in ‘ Little Haugh,’ this | being the first crop after the ploughing up of the grass. ae

“* Front Field ’—laid down to grass in 1906—was still quite | good, and the present tenant intends leaving it down longer. |

“In ‘ Big Haugh ’—laid down in 1904 and still in grass— | an experiment had been made in applying farmyard manu re | to the field—one-half being dunged in 1910 and the other h in the present year. In this same field was, at one corner,

IQII.| THEORIES OF PLANT NUTRITION. 653

portion where the original seeding of 1893 (also Mr. Elliot’s) remained, and had not been ploughed up (in 1904) with the rest of the field. This portion was decidedly the best in the whole field. The crops, whether arable or grass, were excel- lent all round, and afforded opportunities of judging alike what pasture laid down on the Clifton system looked like at different ages, and also of what the corn and root crops taken after the ploughing up of the pasture were.”

IN an article entitled “The Soil and the Plant,” which Mawears im the current issue of Science Progress, Dr. E. J. Russell, of Rothamsted, discusses Theories of some recent American hypotheses on Plant Nutrition. plant nutrition. According to the generally accepted view, manures benefit plants by directly supplying nutritive. materials. For example, when phosphates are added to the soil, it is believed that they go to supply the phosphorus required by the growing plant. Of recent years, however, a different view has obtained some vogue. It originated in America, and has been adopted by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture.

The new hypothesis is based on the assertion that the “concentration ” of the soil moisture is always constant, what- ever the manurial treatment may have been; in other words, it is asserted that the amounts of nutritive salts in solution in the soil water remain constant. If this is true it follows that the chemical constitution of the soil is without effect on plant growth; fertility must depend upon the physical factors tegulating the supply of soil solution to the plant; for if the soil solution is always the same, plants can obtain more

nutritive substances only by obtaining a greater volume of

|

the solution. To complete the hypothesis, it is asserted that

infertility is often due to the presence in the soil of toxic

substances, some of which have undoubtedly been isolated. The old hypothesis of de Candolle is thus revived, and the

toxicity is believed to be due to the presence of substances

!

excreted by plants in the normal processes of growth, such substances being harmful to other plants of the same genus, but not necessarily harmful to plants of a different kind.

654 THEORIES OF PLANT NUTRITION. [ NOV.,

A convenient explanation is thus provided for the beneficial action of rotation of crops and the sterility which results when the same crop is grown continuously on the same ground. In order to explain the unquestioned beneficial effects of fer- tilisers, which the above hypothesis would seem to negative, it is supposed that they act either on the distribution of the soil moisture, or as antidotes to the toxic substances. |

In discussing this hypothesis Dr. Russell in the first instance points out that the evidence is insufficient to establish the primary assumption that the soil solution is constant for all soils. Figures are quoted to show that the concentration, while showing little absolute variation, yet relatively differs considerably. The difference between 5 parts per million and 30 parts per million, when stated in concrete figures, is small, but relatively it is equivalent to a difference of 500 per cent. Moreover, the irregular distribution of the figures, — showing the number of results for each degree of concen- | tration, suggests that the variation is outside the ordinary — experimental error.

ine the next «place. Dr. Russell contests the view that variations in the soil concentration do not influence the rate of plant growth, and consequently are without influence on fertility. He points out that, while there is always a limiting factor which controls the situation, the amount of growth in | nutrient solutions tends to increase as the concentration of | salts is increased.

With regard to toxic substances, it is pointed out that it is | not surprising that some of the numerous organic compounds in the soil should have a toxic action when supplied to the’ plant through the medium of a water culture. It does not' follow that such substances retain their toxic properties when! added to the soil. In regard to the phenomena associated with “sour” soils, the writer is, however, prepared to admit) that toxic substances may be present.

In regard to the excretion of toxic substances dui the normal processes of growth, Dr. Russell is able to bring’ forward the results of his own work at Rothamsted, and to show that there is no evidence in support of this hypothesis, Plants grown continuously in water, sand and soil cultures for aS many as six generations, have shown no signs ol

;

}

ee

= —

fei) .COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT, ETC., IN U.S... 655

suffering from toxicity. Again, wheat has been grown con- tinuously in the Broadbalk field at Rothamsted for sixty years, but so far there is no sign that the plot is suffering from the presence of any toxic substance.

It must be admitted that the investigations of the ene of Soils have served a useful purpose in directing attention to factors of fertility other than the chemical composition of the soil. Physical conditions undoubtedly play a more important part than the earlier chemists were disposed to assign to them, but investigation on fertility cannot be restricted to chemical and physical conditions: the biological changes which go on in the soil must be investigated, and these again cannot be restricted, as they have been hitherto,

to the bacterial flora. As Dr. Russell’s work on soil sterilisa-

tion demonstrates, higher forms of life are probably at work, and may exercise a profound influence on plant growth.

miwestiinate. Of the cost of producing cereals in the United States in 1909 has been made by the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Depart-

Pest of Producing ent of Agriculture. The estimate is Wheat, Oats and Maize based on the replies received from about in the United States. 5,000 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics, who were asked to supply

fiformation on the tollowing points:—Cost per acre of (1) commercial fertilisers, (2) preparing ground for seed, (3) seed, (4) planting, (5) gathering or harvesting, (6) pre- paring for market, (7) wear and tear on implements, (8) rent

of land or interest on its value, (9) other items of cost, _{10) total cost, (11) average yield of product per acre, (12)

value per bushel, (13) value of crop per acre (not including bye-products), (14) value of bye-products, (15) average size of fields in acres, (16) average value per acre of land growing the crop.

The cost of the labour, both manual and of animals,

_ whether owned or hired, was estimated upon the basis of the

prevailing rate of wages paid, whether the actual work were

done by the owner or hired labour. The cost of preparing

656 CosT OF PRODUCING WHEAT, ETC., IN U.S. [NOvV.,

ground for seed included the cost of applying manure where this was done; and the cost of cultivation included all costs from the time the crop was planted until ready for harvesting. With the cost of preparing for market was included all expenses between harvesting and marketing. The informa- tion received by the Bureau from its correspondents referred either to their own farms or to typical farms in their vicinity. Asa result of this inquiry the following estimates have been obtained (a dollar has been reckoned at 4s. 2d.) :—

Wheat. © Oats. Maize. GEE aL Sot hy eC Cost per acre, excluding rent.. oe Abe Bho. BRE Ie) ZOE ® 25) 76 ay including rent . Peg ite a AO 0 45) 20 2, Sue Value of grain, per bushel de its fo) et) 2 per acre me ae a 3.1 08, EO 58 8 82s Cost per bushel, excluding rent he u Senate OFtOin, 0) ina ‘3 including rent a ZG Le 13% Value of grain, less cost (z.e. profit) per acre exclud- ing vemt yes 2025 20,20. 43 2 Value of grain, less cost (Zé. profit) per acre, ‘includ- ing Went. =. 22028 Lo 2 32a, Value of grain, less cost (2. g: profit) per ‘bushel, . excluding rent... Paes oO 10 a5 Value of grain, less cost (4. é. - profit) per bushel, including rent... sti i Bree pene pye | Oo 5 ae Per Pex Per cent cent. cent Excess of value over cost (z.e. profit) excluding rent 116 97 136 i oe Bs Ee including rent 50 DOr *: 64 Acres. Acres. Acres. Average size of fields ... Ais aire af neg ss BORG 25°5 30°2 Sees Sse iS age neee Value per acre of land... ate Te Bs ‘.. 227°° 6) 2039°8 ) 20gtomm Per Per RSet cent. cent. cent. Percentage of rental to land value... el: Yi 6°3 54 6°3

Cost of Producing Wheat.—The cost of producing wheat is thus £2 6s. 6d. per acre, or 2s. gd. per bushel. The cost — per acre is made up of the following items (all per acre):— Artificial manures, 2S. 5d.; preparation of land, 8s. 1od.gm seed, 5s. 11d.; planting, 1s. 11d.; harvesting, 5s. 6d.; pre- paring for market, 6s. 2d.; miscellaneous, is. 11d.; Tenuam 13s. 10d. The cost of production of wheat per acre varies eT from £4 18s. 8d. in Maine to £1 17s. 5d. in South Dakota; — 5 | the chief reasons for the difference being the higher rent and — . | cost of fertilisers in the former State; the cost of production | per bushel is again greatest in the case of Maine, with an 4 4 equally large cost in South Carolina, while a bushel of wheat is produced with least expense in Montana. :

Yield of Wheat-~The yield of wheat varies from 36°2

191I1.| COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT, ETC., IN U,S. 657

bushels per acre in Vermont to 12°8 bushels per acre in South Carolina, the average for the United States being 17°2 bushels. An indication of the quality of the grain (4s. per bushel for the whole Union) is given by the value per bushel in the Memows: States; this is. greatest in the case of South Carolina and Georgia, and least in the case of Utah and {[daho. The average value of the grain per acre over the whole of the United States is estimated at £3 8s. 8d.

Profit from Wheat Growing.—Taking the country as a whole, the net profit from wheat growing works out. at Pass od, 10r every acre under the crop, or at 1s.-4d. for every bushel of grain produced. The remarkable estimate of a profit of £4 2s. 6d. per acre was made for Vermont, while the cultivation of wheat would also appear to be a very profitable matter in the far western States of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. The profit is only about Ios. per acre in West Virginia, Kentucky, and

_ Tennessee.

Cost of Producing Oats.—It will be seen that the average cost of producing oats in the United States is £2 5s. 6d. per acre, Or IS. 4d. per bushel. The various items which go to make up this cost are as follows (all per acre) :—Artificial manures, is. 8d.; preparation of land, 7s. 10d.; seed, 4s. 8d.; planting, 1s. 1od.; harvesting, 5s. 7d.; preparing for market, Pemid. miscellaneous, is. 10d.; and rent, 15s. 9d. The highest cost per acre as regards individual states is in Maine and Maryland with 86s. and 94s. per acre respectively, while the cost is lowest in Missouri and North and South Dakota, the expenses in each of these States not exceeding about 36s. per acre. The cost of producing a bushel of oats is highest in Connecticut and Maine (2s. 3d.) and Arizona (3s. 3d.), and lowest in North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri (1s. 2d.). The average cost for the whole country iS Is. 4d. per bushel.

Yield of Oats.—The yield varies from 592 bushels per acre in Utah and 51 bushels per acre in Montana to 22 bushels in Arizona and Florida, the average for the United States being 35°2 bushels. The grain is priced highest in Arizona (38. 9d. per bushel), and lowest in Iowa, North and South

| Dakota, and Nebraska (1s. 5d. per bushel); the average is

658 COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT, ETC:, IN U.S. [Nov —

is. Sd. The average value of the grain per acre over the a | whole of the United States is estimated at £2 18s. 8d. = |

Profit from Growing Oats.— The above table shows that 5 S| the profit from growing oats is 13s. 2d. from every acre under i | the crop, or 5d. for every bushel produced, these figures com- 4 paring very unfavourably with the corresponding figures for wheat. Large profits would seem to be obtained in several — - instances, however, notably in New Hampshire (47s. 2d. per a acre), California (48s. 9d. per acre), and New Mexico (51s. 5d. y per acre); in fact, the profit in the ten far western States 1 is 7 three times as great as the average for the whole country.

Cost of Producing Maize.—The cost of producing maize is a £2 11s. 1d. per acre, or 1s. 7d. per bushel. The cost per | acre is made up of the following items (all per acre) :—Arti- | ficial manures, 3s. 5d.; preparation of land, 8s. 10d.; seed, ~ 1s. od.; planting, 1s. 1od.; cultivation, 9s. 4d.; harvesting, Qs.,.2d.; miscellaneous, 1s. 11d. ; tent, 1558..7ds) 1 hewasn per | bushel, as well as the cost per acre, is highest in the New | | England States. In Maine the cost of production per acre is 47 148. 5d., and per bushel 3s. od.; while in Oklahoma the 4 cost per acre is £1 15s. 9d., and the cost per bushel is. 6d. 4

Yield of Maize.—The yield per acre is greatest in the New oe England States (New Hampshire 53°7 bushels), and least in ‘ the States of Florida and Mississippi (i9 bushels); the | _ average for the whole country is 32°4 bushels per acre. ed bushel of grain is priced highest in Georgia and Florida — (3s. gd.) and South Carolina (4s.), and lowest in Minnesota 3 Iowa, South Dakota, and Nebraska (2s. id.). The average — value per bushel over the whole of the United States is 2s. 7d. | The average value of the grain per acre is estimated at £4 35. 8d.

Profit from Maize Growing.—The greatest arom per acre from maize growing is obtained in Rhode Island and :

is made in Mississippi, while for the whole of the United — States the profit averages £1 12s. 7d. per acre. Pa

ese

I9Q11.] SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 659

CoMPARATIVELY little is at present known with regard to the biological factors which cause improved egg production, | or as to the laws according to which

Selection of Fowls these factors operate. Empirical for Egg Production. methods have led to a knowledge of

how to feed, care for, and, to some extent, breed fowls with a view to a high egg production; but the biological laws underlying the process of egg production are still but little understood. A valuable contribution * to the subject has recently been made by Dr. Raymond Pearl and Dr. F. M. Surface, based on an analysis of certain com- prehensive statistics relating to egg production in certain

breeds of the domestic fowl which are available as the result

of many years’ work at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Exact records of production have been kept at this station since 1898 by the use of the trap nest, and from 1905 onwards the work has been conducted with the co-operation of the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture.

Material and Methods of Investigation.—The statistical material dealt with in the investigation is furnished by the egg records of two breeds of hens—Barred Plymouth Rocks and White Wyandottes. All the birds used at the beginning of the breeding experiment in 1898 were pure-bred, and had fOr some years been bred under the direction of the late Prot. G. M. Gowell. The hens used for breeding from 1898 onwards have been only those birds which have, between November 1st of the year in which they were hatched and November ist of the following year, laid 160 or more eggs; and the male birds used since 1900 have been only those from hens which have laid 200 or more eggs in such a year. With

the exception of the first years there has been no close in-

breeding; no birds as closely related as first cousins are said to have been bred together since the first year of the breeding experiments.

Throughout the inquiry the ‘‘first year’s egg production”’

of a hen has been taken as consisting of the trap-nest record of the total number of eggs produced by that hen from

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 110, Parts I. and II.

660 SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. [NOV.,

November ist of the year in which the bird is hatched to November ist of the following year. In the absence’ of records of egg production during the entire lifetime of a hen, | and of extensive data of any longer time unit, this “first vear’s egg production” has been taken as a measure of the total ability of a bird to produce eggs. Although nota precise. measure of such ability, the first year’s production is believed to have a high value for the purposes of inquiry, in that the egg production in this first year is the greatest in the life- time of the hen and decreases each subsequent year, so that the first year’s production, on an average, constitutes a con- siderably larger part of the unknown total production than does that of any other equal period of time. Again, the period is a sufficiently large unit to include the influence of season, as well as other influences such as, for example, the original mating season, time of moulting, and the like,

Records are available of the first year production of eggs in 1899-1900 of 70 Barred Plymouth Rocks and 7o White W yandottes; in 1900-1901 of 85 Barred Plymouth Rocks and 72 White Wyandottes; in 1901-2 of 48 Barred Plymouth Rocks and 33 White Wyandottes. After this year Barred Plymouth Rocks only were used. In 1902-3 records are available for 147 birds, in 1903-4 for 254, in 1904-5 for 283, in 1905-6 for 178, and in 1906-7 for 187 birds. The years 1902-3, 1903-4, 1905-6, and 1906-7 were, however, abnormai years, the records for 1903-4 and 1906-7 relating to eleven months only, and those for all four years being affected by mishaps. Owing to these defects in the statistics, the data f Or one year are probably not strictly comparable with those for any other year. The statistics for each year have to be treated separately, and whenever comparisons between year are made, great caution has to be exercised in drawing conclusions. 1

Variation in Annual Egg Production.—The statistics are examined by the methods of biometrical analysis. Omitting the mathematical conclusions reached, it may be said tha there was no marked change in the average annual egg pro- duction. The following table shows the changes in average annual production between 1899 and 1907 in the case Of Barred Plymouth Rocks, corrections being applied to th

fori.) SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 661

figures in the years stated above to have been abnormal by

adding allowances to the actual figures so as to give the highest probable yield in these years.

| Re OE | tggsteid. |, Attusbavernse | Conected average «1899-1900 70 9,545 136°36 | —-136°36 1900-1901 85 12,192 143°44 143°44 1901-1902 48 7,468 155'58 155°58 1902-1G03 147 19,906 135°42 | 159°15 1903-1904 254 . 29,947 417°90 | {29°14 1904-1905 283 37,943 | 134'07 134°07 1905-1906 178 24,827 140°I4 | 154’09 1906-1907 | 187 21,175 | 113°24 142'07 I

The percentage of extremely high layers (producing more than 195 eggs in the first year of production) in the flock decreased during the period from 1899 to 1907. The per- centage of exceptionally poor layers (producing less than 45 eggs in the first year of production) in the flock increased during the period. The general characteristics of variation in annual egg production in White Wyandottes were found to be essentially similar in the years during which they were tested to those of variation in Barred Plymouth Rocks.

Vanation in Monthly Egg Production.—The question of the variation in egg production at different times of the year is extremely important both from a practical as well as a theoretical point of view. The differences in the production of eggs at different seasons cause corresponding differences in the prices of eggs, so that the value of a hen depends upon the time of production of eggs in addition to the total amount produced annually. A bird with a large egg production may bring in less money in a year than a bird laying very con-

siderably fewer eggs, but producing them at a time when

Prices are high. The aim of the practical poultry keeper is, therefore, to increase as much as possible his winter egg production.

The table on p. 662 shows the average egg production per hen per month at the Maine Experiment Station, both in absolute figures and as a percentage of the annual production.

It will be seen that of the total annual production of 128°86 eggs, 28°02 per cent. (or 36°12 eggs) were produced in the

662 SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. [NOV., |

winter months from November ist to March rst. In this _ third of the year, therefore, only about two-sevenths of the — total number of eggs were laid. Between November 1st and July ist 73°29 per cent. was produced, 1.e., in the first two- = thirds of the laying year nearly three-fourths of the year’s” eggs were laid. From March 1st to June 1st 35°60 per cent.

of the total number of eggs was produced; in this particular e .

quarter of the year, therefore, a little more than a third of the | eggs were laid. “ie

The average monthly production is lowest in November, - and increases in December and January at a relatively very rapid rate. There is a slackening in the rate of increase in | February probably due to the end of the winter cycle of egg production being reached. This February slackening amounts | | in many cases to an actual decrease in productiveness com pared with January. The average monthly production reaches its maximum in March, this production being maintained | throughout April, but there is a steady decline after April 4 to the end of the laying year in October. There is a tendency — towards a slightly larger decrease in May, this month being F the penod of natural broodiness.

| |

IQ11.] SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 663

The second (March ist to June Ist) is the natural laying period of the domestic fowl in its normal reproductive cycle. The third (June 1st to September 1st) and fourth (September 1st to October 31st) are periods not sharply separated from one another. The summer egg production represents in part a natural continuance of the normal breeding season, and in part a stimulated process. This period is terminated by the moult, which is the characteristic feature of the fourth period. Effect of Selection on Production.—It is by no means certain that there has, in recent times, been any marked amelioration in the innate qualities on which high egg pro- duction depends. The egg production of a given number of hens is, of course, on the average greater than it was fifty or a hundred years ago, but the increased production is quite pos- sibly due entirely to the improved methods of management, which, had they been in vogue in earlier times, would have re- suited in just as large a production as at present. The six best birds at the Maine Experiment Station have given an average production of 240 eggs per bird, an amount which seems to have been equalled in some cases fifty years ago (e,g., it is stated in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1851 (p. 169) that hens of the best laying varieties will lay in a season from 160 to 270 eggs each). Throughout these experiments there was an increase in the stringency of selection due to the fact that there was a decrease in the number of birds producing over 160 eggs; consequently the variation exhibited in the selected stock became steadily smaller, both absolutely and in proportion to the whole flock. lt was not possible to find the effect of selection on egg pro- duction by tracing the production of parent and offspring, or by ascertaining the degree of inheritance of the character and comparing the variability in successive generations following selection, as no records were kept at the Station by which it could be told what birds were the parents of any particular ofispring. It was simply known that the eggs of high-pro- ducing hens were incubated, and the conclusions have to be deduced from data based on results obtained from the flock asawhole. These data show that the annual egg production has by no means tended to increase during eight years; the proportion of exceptionally high producers decreased, and

664 SELECTION OF FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION. [NOV., 2

the proportion of extremely poor producers increased. There is no evidence that the quality of high egg productive- ness was any more fixed in the breed at the end of the experi- ments than it was at the beginning. During the last three years of the experiments it was shown that a relatively small environmental change is able to produce a very large differ- ence in the average egg production in flocks of hens of exactly the same selected ancestry. Such a result could not occur if the character had been fixed by selective breeding. With regard to monthly production, it was found that selection in this way for increased annual production had no beneficial effect on winter egg production, and it was even found in the experiments that the variability in monthly egg production was adversely affected. It is stated that there is — no doubt that this system of selection failed to attain its desired end, i.e., increased egg production. Effect of Housing on Production.—The influence of en- — vironment on production, and the importance of this factor in drawing any conclusions as to the effect of breeding on egg production, are shown by some experiments which were conducted from 1904-5 onwards as to the relation of the amount of floor-space per bird to egg production. The birds — were divided into flocks of 50, 100, and 150 birds each, and | put into pens with floor-space such that in the pens containing 50 and too birds there were 4°8 square feet of floor-space | per bird, and in the pens containing 150 birds there were 3°2 square feet. This small environmental difference in one year produced relatively great changes in average annual egg production. The average annual egg production per bird was found to be distinctly lower when the hens were kept in flocks of 100 birds each than when they were kept in flocks of 50 birds each, though the number of square feet of floor-_ space was the same in both cases. The production was also | distinctly lower when the hens were kept in flocks of 150 birds each than when kept in flocks of 50 and too birds each, the floor-space in this case being smaller. In both cases, | however, the difference was found to lie almost entirely ine the economically unimportant summer egg production; the F winter egg production was not adversely affected by keeping |

; \-

5

IQII.]| MUSHROOM CULTIVATION IN FRANCE. 665

the hens in 100 and 150 bird flocks and allowing as little as 3°2 square feet per bird. The reason for this was, presumably, that where the flocks were crowded the birds benefited from their animal heat during the winter months. On the other hand, during the summer the hens suffered greatly from the heat owing to their crowded condition.

Mushroom cultivation is carried on in France in the suburbs of certain large towns, such as Paris and Bordeaux, old abandoned quarries of building stone,

Mushroom Pm lgcation in chalk, or plaster being commonly ramce.* utilised for the purpose. The produc-

tion in the suburbs of Paris is very

large, and is sufficient to supply nearly the whole of the local demand of that city, while a substantial export trade also exists, especially to London. It is estimated that the culti- vation in the outskirts of Paris gives employment to 1,500 workers, and the daily production during the summer is 500 cwt. of mushrooms.

In Loir-et-Cher the annual production reaches 10,000 cwt., the price being 30s. to 45s. per cwt. The cultivation is also of importance in Garonne and Gironde, where in 1880 as many as 5,000 workers were employed, although in this district the industry has recently not been so successful. The present annual production is some 16,800 cwt., from I13 quarries, and the price in Bordeaux is 40s. per cwt.

The cultivation of mushrooms in France tends at the present time to increase, chiefly on account of the gradual rise in the price of mushrooms which has occurred in the last ten years. The total annual production is estimated by the syndicates of French mushroom cultivators at 128,000 cwt., valued at £320,000. The expenses of cultivation are mainly in respect of manures and labour. Horse dung is the only manure recommended, and should be strawy and of good quality. Peat moss litter does not give satisfactory results. Manure of good quality is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, and

ok . ° . Bulletin Mensuel de U Office des Rensetgnements Agricoles, June, 1911.

ZL

666 INTERNATIONAL DAIRY CONGRESS. _ [NOV.,

the cost has risen in consequence. It is said that a limit is placed on the extension of mushroom cultivation round Paris owing to the lack of manure of suitable quality. At the present time there is also great difficulty in getting well-selected spawn: the so-called selected spawn usually sold produces varieties of which the yield is poor both as regards quality and weight. The price of this spawn makes it less profitable than that produced by the cultivators. The labour required is considerable, and the workers need to be experienced. Wages in the neighbourhood of Paris are at the rate of 5s. per day of ten hours. A foreman, eight labourers, a picker, and a carter are required for 8,000 beds of 6 feet each. The foreman is paid about £10 per month, with an additional $d. or 1d. for every basket of 22 Ib. of mushrooms produced. During recent years wages have increased. |

Tue fifth International Dairy Congress was held at — Stockholm irom June 28th to July 1st. The members of the Congress comprised delegates from

International most of the countries of Europe, and Dairy the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Congress. were represented by Mr. E. G. Hay-— garth Brown. z

The following is a summary of the conclusions arrived at by the Congress :— ; Effect of Foods on Milk.—The first question considera with regard to milk production was the effect of different foods on the quantity and quality of milk. The Congress came to the conclusion that it has been established that certain foods have an influence upon the fat content of the milk of the majority of good milch cows, but they considered that several points in connection therewith required further investigation. a Milk Control Associations.—In view of the results which | have been obtained by milk control societies in Sweden Denmark, Norway, Holland, Germany, Finland, and Austri y the Congress expressed the view that such societies were a

instrumental in improving breeds of dairy cattle and in con-—

‘a

tributing to a reduction in the cost of milk production. They

1911.| INTERNATIONAL DAIRY CONGRESS. 667

drew attention to their importance in initiating a rational and economic method of feeding and in encouraging the keeping of a regular system of accounts.

Veterinary Control of Milk.—The Congress appointed a special committee for the purpose of drawing up regulations with regard to a system of veterinary control of milk, and these regulations will be submitted for the consideration of the next Congress. In the first place, however, the Congress expressed the desire that dairy associations should use their efforts towards introducing a system of veterinary control of milk into all towns and other large centres of population.

Composition of Milk.—The recommendations as to the composition of fresh milk intended for consumption, referred rather to the general characteristics of the milk than to the proportion of fat. The Congress stated that milk destined for consumption should be milk to which nothing has been added and from which nothing has been abstracted, and which fulfilled the following, among other, conditions :—

(a) The milk should be that of dairy cows in good health, well kept and well fed. Nospoilt feeding stuff, no excessively watery food, and no food which imparts a flavour to the milk should be given to dairy cows, or should be given in small quantities only. In the case of animals receiving medicine which might pass into the milk, the milk should not be placed

on the market.

(b) Immediately after milking, the milk should be filtered and cooled.

(c) The milk intended for consumption should preferably

_ be a mixture of all the milk of at least three cows.

(d) A minimum fat and albuminoid content should be fixed, but local conditions should be taken into account in fixing, | the exact amount.

(e) The milk should be handled exclusively by healthy and

expert persons, and with every desirable precaution towards | fod :

_ €nsuring cleanliness.

| The Congress also passed resolutions relating to condensed

jand dried milk. The composition of cheese will form a

“subject of discussion at the next Congress, but preliminary Steps for a consideration of the subject are being taken.

LELee

668 ESTATES BELONGING TO THE CROWN. [ NOV.,

THE fifth report of the President of the Board of Agricul-

ture and Fisheries as a Commissioner of Woods is included

in the recently issued eighty-ninth re-

The Agricultural POT of the Commissioners of his

Estates belonging | Majesty’s Woods, Forests, and Land to the Crown. Revenues. (H.C. 205, ort).

The principal agricultural estates belonging to the Crown and under the charge of the President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries as a Commissioner of Woods comprised at March 3Ist, IgI1, about 63,480 acres, divided as follows, viz.:—7,124 acres let for small holdings . and allotments; 56 farms containing between 50 and 250 | acres; 60 farms containing between 250 and 500 acres; 25 farms containing between 500 and 750 acres; 1 farm con- — taining between 750 and 1,000 acres; 6 farms containing — upwards of 1,000 acres, consisting largely of downland; about 357 acres of grass land, the grazing of which is let annually in lots by auction; and about 2,500 acres of wood- . land. i

The acreage of land let for small holdings and allotments | up to March gist, 1910, was 6,689, and that of the land so|_ . let to March 31st last 7,124, being an increase during the past | _ year of about 435 acres, and a total increase of about 6,131) acres in the last five years. During the time that Lord) Carrington has had the management of the agricultural estates there have been erected for small holders 58 new cottages and 41 sets of farm buildings; 28 cottages have been! substantially altered or improved, and the homesteads andj} buildings on the farms which were divided into small hol ings have been remodelled to fit them for the use of 30 small holders. On the 435 acres let for small holdings durin ) i; the current year, nine new cottages and 11 new sets of farm _ buildings are being or are about to be erected. Arrange) ments are in hand for letting a further area of land for smal) holdings and allotments. |

The gross receipts during the year ended March gist la from these estates amounted to £66,198, as compared wit) the average annual gross receipts (exclusive of the receipt) from the sale of produce and live and dead stock on fart , : then in hand) of £60,969 for the three years to March 3Is :

Me 7) ee aoe Ts

WaART DISEASE ON POTATO FOLIAGE.

IQII.] WART DISEASE OF POTATOES. 669

1910, showing an increase of £5,229. The average gross receipts (exclusive of receipts from farms in hand) for the three years to March 3ist, 1907 (the year in which the management of the agricultural estates was taken over), was £53,991, so that during the time Lord Carrington has had the management of the estates the gross receipts have increased by 412,207.

A scheme for the management of the woods at Delamere, County Chester, comprising about 2,000 acres, is being carried out, and during the past year an area of about 52 acres has been replanted.

——

A LARGE number of cases of Wart Disease or Black Scab in potatoes have been reported to the Board during the present season. In nearly every instance, how- Wart Disease ever, the outbreaks have occurred in of Potatoes. districts in which the disease has been present for years, and in the great majority of cases on allotments and small gardens. Several places in which disease was recorded in previous years have been ascertained to be free from disease this year. ‘These are of two kinds: first, those outside the infected area, where the evidence shows that the original outbreak was due to infected seed, and not to infected soil; secondly, those, chiefly within the infected area, where the growers have planted one of the varieties recommended by the Board as resistant under ordinary circumstances. It is satisfactory to be able to report that there are a large number in the latter category.

The hot weather of the past summer does not appear to have had much effect in checking the development of the fungus. Badly infected localities, where no precautions have been taken, have vielded potatoes as badly infected as ever, and very few growers who had disease in 1910 escaped in

1911, except where disease-resisting varieties have been grown. |

The disease, however, has often appeared in a different form, The warty outgrowths which are characteristic of the attack have appeared on the stem and leaves, as well as on the tubers, and cases have been reported where the whole of the ‘disease has appeared on the parts of the plant above the “ground, while the tubers remained free.

670 CUCUMBER AND MELON DISEASE. [NOV.,

The illustration shows a stem of a potato plant bearing leaves which have been entirely distorted by the fungus. Another case has been found where an underground branch of a potato plant bore a healthy tuber and at the end of the shoot a leaf as badly distorted as the leaf shown in the figure. The appearance of the fungus on the part of the plant above ground has been of great assistance in the detection of disease.

During the present year examples of a disease known as Colletotrichum oligochaetum, Cavari, which attacks melons, cucumbers, and other cucurbitaceous

A Cucumber and plants, have been sent to Kew for inves- | Melon Disease tigation from various districts in Eng- | New to Britain. land. The disease is prevalent in |

France and Italy. Every part of the plant is liable to attack, and seedlings are often killed in large | numbers, owing to the seed-leaves or cotyledons and stem | being destroyed. When the soil becomes infected the young plantlets are frequently destroyed before they appear above ground, but older plants do not succumb so quickly. On the | ~ stem the spots are elongated, one to two inches in length, and of a pale yellowish-green colour. On the lateral branches the _ spots are similar to those on the stem, but smaller, and the | entire shoot soon turns yellow and dies off, showing a soft, |_ watery consistency. On the leaves the spots are more or less | circular in outline, rarely more than half an inch across, at : first yellowish-green, becoming yellowish-brown, and darker ie towards the edge. The diseased tissue becomes dry and / cracked within a few days after infection, but the dead por’ - never falls away entirely, and does not leave a clear-cut margin | ‘a. to the hole, as is the case when a leaf is attacked by Hormo- I. " dendron hordei. When the fruit is attacked, deep sunken) — patches two to four inches long are formed near the tip. The! entire fruit soon after being affected changes to a pale yellow i colour and dies. Very young fruit dies within two or three, days after infection and before sunken patches have time to appear. In every instance minute pustules or warts of ale pinkish colour at first, afterwards yellowish-brown, appear > 0 the diseased patches. These represent the fruit of the fungus, 1

Wey. 8

rays 1

CUCUMBER AND MELON DISEASE,

(Colletotrichum oligochaetum, Cavari.)

. Cucumber leaf, showing early stage of the disease (nat. size). 2, Diseased patch, showing the pustules of fungus fruit (slightly magnified). . 3. Section through a pustule, showing origin of spores and black spines (highly magnified) rt 4. Free spores (highly magnified). ‘ 5. A free spine (highly magnified).

19Qit.] INTERNATIONAL STATISTICAL INSTITUTE. 671

and consist of a mass of colourless spores mixed with slender blackish spines. These spores are capable of germination the moment they are mature, and are readily dispersed by syring- ing and other agencies.

Neither flowers of sulphur nor Bordeaux mixture checks the progress of this disease when once fairly established, but, on the other hand, a solution of liver of sulphur—1 oz. dis- solved in three or four gallons of water, depending on the relative “hardness ”’ of the foliage—arrests its progress, as also does “self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture.” Diseased leaves and fruit should be removed during the early stage of the disease, before the spores are mature. If this precaution is neglected the houses become infected, and the epidemic becomes more serious and more difficult to combat year by year, as has recently been the experience of growers in the case of Hormo- dendron hordei, from an epidemic of which one grower lost #,2,000 in one year.

The Thirteenth Session of the International Statistical Institute was held at The Hague from the 3rd to the 8th of September last. The British Govern-

ae eotoual ment were Officially represented by Statistical : wie CB HNO a Institute. Major Craigie, C.B., and Mr. Kew,

the other British members of the Insti- tute who attended being Sir Athelstane Baines, CS i: feean Coghlan, 1.S.0., and Mr. A. L. Bowley. Captain Muirhead Collins, C.M.G., attended as official representative of the Commonwealth of Australia.

The Session was opened by H.R.H. Prince Henry of the Netherlands, and the Prime Minister was also present and welcomed the Institute on behalf of the Government. The

_ delegates and members were subsequently received by _H.R.H. Prince Henry, and official receptions were given

by the Government and by the cities of Amsterdam and

_ Rotterdam.

Signor Bodio was re-elected President, and two vacancies

in the list of Vice-Presidents, caused by the death of M.

» Levasseur and the retirement of Dr. Lexis, were filled by the } appointment of M. de Foville and Dr. Von Mayr. M. _ Methorst was elected as General Secretary, Major Craigie

672 INTERNATIONAL STATISTICAL INSTITUTE. [NOV.,

was re-elected as Hon. Treasurer, and Mr. Rew was appointed -

one of the Auditors.

The work of the Session was divided between three sec- tions, viz.: (1) Demography and Statistical Method; (2) Economic Statistics; (3) Social Statistics.

In Section I., M. Meuriot’s report on Urban Agglomera-

tions contained suggestions for meeting the difficulty of

obtaining a definition of a “town” for the purpose of com- paring urban and rural populations in different countries. The ‘work of the second section was naturally of most importance from the agricultural standpoint. M. Yves Guyot’s paper on agricultural production, gold production, and prices, Dr. Foldes’s report on the statistics of corn prices, and Mr. Rew’s final report on international fishery statistics, especially dealt with subjects coming within the sphere of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. M. Ricci, one of

the two special delegates from the International Agricultural —

Institute, submitted for the consideration of the International Statistical Institute certain questions as to the standard to be taken in estimating the yield of crops and the adoption of uniform methods in the preparation of crop reports from different countries. A commission was appointed to examine

the whole question, Major Craigie being elected as the repre- sentative of this country upon it. As the result of a paper — read by M. March, a recommendation was adopted that inter- _ national statistics of motive power should be collected on a — uniform plan, a subject upon which the inquiries of the Board — in connection with the Census of Production will throw some

light in respect of motive power used in agriculture. A number of other important papers and reports dealing with various branches of statistics were read.

Certain questions of general interest were considered in the General Assembly of the Institute, amongst them being the proposal for the establishment of an International — Statistical Bureau. This was discussed at considerable

length, and eventually a resolution in favour of the establish-

ment of a permanent Bureau of the Institute was approved, —

and the consideration of ways and means was referred back —

to the special commission (upon which Sir Llewellyn Soi

:

f f f } t 2 | i x [ & % u r

1911.) SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 673

and Mr. Rew are the British representatives), to consider the question with the Bureau of the Institute and to report to the next Session at Vienna in 1913.

SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS.* SOILS AND MANURING.

Flow of Air and Water through Soils (W. H. Green and G. A. Ampt, Jour. Agric. Science, Vol. IV., Part I., May, 1911; Cambridge University Press).—This paper gives an account of experiments designed to show an accord between certain theoretical expressions for the per- meability of soil and experimental results. It is recognised that the mechanical analysis of a soil is no guide to one of the most important factors of fertility—the permeability of the soil to air and water. What is required is a quantitative expression of the relations of the soil to the movements of air and water through it. The authors con- clude that the required relation can be stated in terms of three con- stants dependent on the mechanical constitution of the soil in regard to the composition, size, and arrangement of its particles, and measured by (a) the specific interstitial space; (b) the permeability to water; and (c) the surface tension. These constants are liable to vary, how- ever, when the soil is disturbed in any way. Mathematical expressions for these constants, in terms of quantities capable of measurement in relation to a laboratory sample contained in a glass tube are given, and the modifications necessary according as the soil moisture travels upwards, downwards, or horizontally, are evaluated. The paper con-

' cludes with a verification of these formule by means of laboratory experiments on three classes of soil enclosed in a glass tube. The apparatus used is fully described and illustrated. The authors suggest that the evaluation of these constants is of more importance than, and should replace, the measurement of the size of the soil particles, as is ordinarily done by means of the ‘‘ mechanical analysis ’’ of a soil.

Absorption of Ammonia from the Atmosphere (A. D. Hall and °N. H. J. Miller, Jour. Agric. Science, Vol. IV., Part I., May, 1911; Cambridge University Press).—The object of this investigation was to find whether the soil usually absorbs ammonia from the atmosphere or gives it off. The proportion of ammonia in the air is in any case exceedingly small, but the question is of some importance in attempts to construct a balance-sheet for the nitrogen received by and removed from an experimental plot over any length of time. Attempts to measure the amount of ammonia absorbed or given up by a current of air drawn through a tube filled with soil were unsuccessful, no appreciable effect being observed in the small scale experiment carried out. The method was then employed of exposing dishes of dilute Sulphuric acid to the air. A pair of dishes was exposed at each of

“A summary of all reports on agricultural experiments and investigations recently received will be given each month. The Board are anxious to obtain for inclusion copies of reports on inquiries, whether carried out by agricultural colleges, societies, or private persons.

674 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [NOV.,

three different situations at Rothamsted, one dish in each pair at about two inches above the ground, and the other at about four feet. Dishes were thus exposed for two years, and the contents were analysed and changed monthly. The highest average amount of ammonia collected in a year represented 1°533 lb. per acre of nitrogen. This was in the lower dish over arable land. The amount is, however, partly due to evolution of ammonia from the soil after the application of ammoniacal manures. Leaving out of account, however, the period in which the influence of these manures is noticeable, absorption was _ greater for the higher dishes than the lower, and greater over arable land than over grass, except where chimneys near the grass land contaminated the air. The dishes were covered with fine gauze in order to exclude insects and as much dust as possible, and to this precaution the authors attribute the much smaller amount of nitrogen absorbed than in similar experiments abroad. The smaller absorption by the acid close to the soil is attributed to the less frequent renewal of the air around the

dishes than at a greater height, but it might be taken to be due to —

reduction in the ammonia in the air close to the soil owing to absorp- tion by the soil. On the other hand, any absorption by the soil would _have been expected to be greater over arable land than over grass,

and the larger amount of nitrogen collected by the acid over arable —

land would not accord with this view. Until it has been determined whether there is any difference in the ammonia content of the air at the two heights dealt with here it is impossible to come to any definite conclusion as to whether the soil is absorbing or giving off ammonia. It can be concluded with some confidence, however, that if the soil normally absorbs ammonia the total amount of absorption is very

small. Even assuming that the soil is as effective an absorbing agent ~

as the sulphuric acid used in the experiments the maximum absorption per annum amounts to less than a pound per acre, a quantity that

would be negligible in any estimates of the gains and losses of nitrogen —

on a given piece of land under any method of treatment.

Calcium Gyanamide and Nitrate of Lime (James Hendrick, Jour. Soc. of Chem. Industry, No. 9, Vol. 30, May 15th, 1911).—This paper con- tains a short account of the experiments with nitrogenous manures which were noticed in this Journal for May, 1910, p. 134, and gives the results of additional trials carried out in 1909. Nitrate of lime has generally given better results than other nitrogenous manures.

Many of the soils in the north-east of Scotland are very deficient in lime, and the superiority of this manure in the district is attributed

to the lime contained in it. Green Manuring (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy.

Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—Tares, rape, and mustard were grown in ~

1909 and ploughed in, and the effect of mineral manures was compared with that of lime in the case of each green crop. The crop grown in

Ig10 was wheat, the average yields from the two tares plots being 14°7 bush. per acre, from the two rape plots 21°6 bush. per acre,” | and from the two mustard plots 22°3 bush. - per acre. Lime

proved superior to mineral manures with each green crop, a result

possibly due to the depletion of the soil in lime. The results show that i | on a soil such as that of Woburn mustard is a better crop for ploughing- |

SS ls ttl ll

I9QII.] SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 675

in green than tares. It is now proposed to vary the experiment by growing the green crops as before, but feeding them on the land to

sheep instead of turning them in green.

Use of Lime (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—The crop grown on *‘ Butt Furlong ’”’ in 1910 was wheat. This was sown on November 13th, 1909, and a dressing of 10 cwt. ground lime per acre was given to one plot on November 23rd. This is the second dressing of 10 cwt. ground lime applied to this plot, the first having been given in the autumn of 1907. A second plot under the experiment was given 2 tons per acre of lump lime in 1907, and has received nothing further.

The yield from the application of ground lime was 4 bush. more per acre of wheat than on the plot treated in 1907 with 2 tons. per acre of lump lime. This latter application, however, gave in 1908 103 bush. more of barley than the ground lime, so that there still remains a balance in favour of the lump lime.

Experiments with Nitrogenous Top-dressings (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—Top-dressings of 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia per acre and of calcium cyanamide, cal- cium nitrate, and nitrate of soda, in such quantities as to supply as much nitrogen as that contained in 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia were given in 1910 to oats and mangolds. In addition, 3 cwt. mineral super- phosphate per acre was given to the land under oats, and a dressing of 12 tons dung, 3 cwt. superphosphate, 1 cwt. sulphate of potash, and 2 cwt. salt per acre to the land under mangolds.

The results in the case of oats confirmed those of the previous year, viz., that when the same amount of nitrogen is applied to corn crops it does not matter much in which form of these nitrogenous top- dressings it is given.

With the mangold crop sulphate of ammonia was less beneficial than the other three nitrogenous manures.

In order to ascertain the residual manurial value of these nitro- genous manures, wheat was grown in 1910 on plots which in 1909 were under mangolds and had received the same manures as those stated above to have been given to mangolds in 1910. Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia were found to leave no residue, but gave rather a lowering of the produce compared with a plot on which no nitrogenous top-dressing had been given in 1909. Calcium cyanamide and calcium nitrate gave a small increase, possibly due to the lime supplied by them, but Dr. Voelcker remarks that there is nothing at present to lead one to think that, in regard to the new nitrogenous manures, their lasting effect requires to be taken into serious con- sideration.

The Woburn Pot-Culture Experiments, 1909 (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—The Woburn pot-culture experiments of 1909 dealt

with the influence of salts of various metals on cereals, the influence of lime and magnesia in different forms on wheat, the influence of lime

on a soil rich in magnesia, the influence of magnesia on clover and beans, green manuring experiments, experiments with nitrogenous

_top-dressings, and experiments on the inoculation of crops.

From the experiments with lithium and caesium, which have now

676 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [NOV.,

been conducted for several years, it is concluded that salts of lithium, supplying the lithium in not greater quantity than o’o02 per cent. of the soil willdo no harm, but that when given above that quantity they will have an injurious effect on the wheat plant. Caesium salts, on the other hand, would so far appear to have no injurious effect, even when used in amounts to give 0’0036 parts of the metal to 100 parts of soil. Zinc oxide, chloride, sulphate and carbonate, in such amounts as to supply 0°04 parts of zinc per 100 parts of soil, were found to exert a toxic effect, the injury being the greater with the more soluble salts. Experiments with iron and manganese have shown that small quan- tities of these metals have a distinctly stimulating influence on barley.

The experiments as to the influence of lime and magnesia in different forms on wheat showed burnt lime to be inferior to ground lime- stone, whether coarse or fine, and magnesian limestone, whether burnt or not, to be inferior to pure carbonate of lime.

With regard to the influence of lime on a soil rich in magnesia, a soil was selected containing 2'29 per cent. of magnesia and 083 per cent. of lime. The addition of lime to the soil to make the total amount equal to 1°50 per cent. had no effect on the yield of grain, and additions of lime beyond the amount decreased the yield.

The result of adding magnesia to a soil on which clover and beans | were grown was to lower the produce from these crops.

Experiments in 1908 showed that an alteration in the consolidation of the soil, produced by the addition of materials, such as silicate of alumina and silicate of soda, exercised a marked influence in bringing out the benefit of the previous green manuring, and this was confirmed in 1909.

Pot experiments on the comparative values of sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, calcium cyanamide, and nitrate of lime as top-dressings for wheat and barley led to the conclusion that, provided the same amount of nitrogen is supplied, there is little to choose between the — four manures.

The results of experiments with inoculating materials on leguminous — and non-leguminous crops were variable in character: on the whole, there was nothing to indicate an improvement from inoculation.

Manuring of Old Pasture (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. -.

Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—These experiments have been carried 3 out in Broad Mead since i901, the manures being applied in 1901, 1904, 1906, and 1909. The yields in 1910 were as follows :— .

Cwt.

per *

acre No manure .... a ae oF: ee vg me avila 12 tons farmyard manure ee ste he weg iio tae 10 cwt. basic slag, 1 cwt. sulphate of potash ... wee 5 cwt. mineral superphosphate, 1 cwt. sulphate of potash 27 10 cwt. basic slag, 1 cwt. nitrate of potash ... ao pine 2: tons lime *.:.. Boe ee as ae: ae ise eee 2

The hay on the farmyard manure plot was coarse, with little clover in it. The results of the botanical examination of the herbage were similar to those of previous years, the highest proportion of leguminose# being found on the plots to which sulphate of potash had been applied, and the lowest on the nitrate of potash and basic slag plot.

_ good sprinkling of stunted clover plants.

1911.] SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 677

Green Manuring (Rothamsted Expt. Station, Annual Report, 1910).

—For some years on the same field, plots of mustard, vetches, crimson

clover, and rape have been grown and ploughed in, in order to ascer- tain which would have the best effect in preparing the ground for a subsequent straw crop. The last straw crop was in i907; the green crops were repeated during 1908 and 1909, and wheat was again taken in 1910. The yields of wheat after the various green crops were as follows :—Mustard, 196 bush.; rape, 20°8 bush.; crimson clover, 308 bush.; vetches, 34°4 bush. The yield after vetches was greater than on any other experimental plot in 1910. As in the previous trial the value of the leguminous crops as a preparation for wheat was very marked, the yield of grain ‘being 60 per cent. better after either vetches or crimson clover, than after rape or mustard. The yield of straw was even more favourable to the leguminous crops, and it was notice- able that on all these plots following green manuring there was none

of the blight which characterised the wheat elsewhere.

Manuring of Mangolds (Lancs. C.C. Educ. Com., Agric. Dept., Farmers’ Bull. No. 19).—Trials with farmyard manure and artificials for mangolds have been carried out since 1907 at different centres on plots oft,acre in size. A large dressing of farmyard manure (25 tons per acre) did not give a sufficient increase in yield over a medium dressing (15 tons) to pay for the extra manure. Farmyard manure (15 tons) and artificials compared with farmyard manure alone resulted in a profit of 19s. 8d. per acre, after paying for the extra cost of the artificials. Incomplete dressings of artificials have not given so much profit per acre as complete dressings, e.g., the profit after deducting the cost of the manures was 31s. 1d. per acre in the case of a com- plete dressing of nitrate of soda, superphosphate, and kainit, while the effect of omitting kainit or both kainit and superphosphate was to reduce the profit to about 13s. per acre. Doubling the dressing of nitrate of soda {2 cwt. instead of 1 cwt.) in the complete dressing of artificials pro- duced no result. The addition of even a small dressing of salt costing only about a shilling, raised the yield and profit per acre considerably. It must be borne in mind, however, that the addition of salt may cause an actual reduction in the crop on some soils, especially if the amount of kainit in the dressing be large.

Manuring of Mangolds (Roy. Agric. Coll., Cirencester, Scientific Bulletin, No. 2, 1910).—An experiment was carried out on six farms with farmyard manure alone, and also with artificials.

Improvement of Old Pasture (Edinburgh and East of Scotland Coll. of Agric., Report xxiii)—These experiments were carried out from 1908 to 1910 in Mid-Lothian on a raw boulder clay soil situated about 500 ft. above sea-level, thickly covered with soft inferior herbage composed chiefly of bent, Yorkshire fog, ryegrass, and moss, and a

It was not sought to ascertain the best manure, but to determine the improvement effected by a liberal dressing of superphosphate and potash. For this purpose two plots of four acres each were selected in the same field, and these plots were divided into two, one-half being manured in four sections with different dressings, and the other half unmanured. The whole of the manured portion received in February, 1908, 63 cwt. 30 per cent. superphosphate (too Ib. phosphoric

678 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [NOV.,

—-

acid) per acre, while the effect of sulphate of potash in addition and of ground lime was also tested.

In 1908 the plots were stocked with newly clipped Cheviot din- monts, the unmanured plot with 11 and the manured plot with 16 — sheep. The numbers were later increased to 15 and 22 respectively. In 1909 13 and 19 sheep were used, and in I9g1o0 15 and 21. In this last year several sheep on both plots were fat by August 20th, when they were removed and the numbers made up to 14 and 20. During the winter and spring the plots were grazed along with the rest of the field till the end of the first week in June, and then reserved for the experimental sheep.

The live weight increases in the three years from the manured and unmanured plots were respectively as follows :—1908, 518 lb. and 253\ lb.; I909, 5323 lb. and 3623 lb.; 10910; 545 lb. and 325 Ib: liam gives an increase due to the use of manures of 655 lb. Valuing this at 33d. per lb., and deducting the cost of the manures (45 18s.), the profit is 4.3 13s. for the four acres, or 18s. 3d. per acre. The improve- ment due to the manures was in reality much greater. The effect of the manures was by no means exhausted by tg1o, and the increase of clover, which took place on the manured plots, is likely in addition to have a beneficial influence for a considerable time. Moreover, the experimental period did not cover the whole of the grazing season, and it is estimated that this would bring the profit up to 30s. per acre.

There were no marked differences in the increases in live weight on — the sub-plots due to the addition of lime or omission of sulphate of potash.

Manurial Experiments (Shepton Mallet Grammar School, 11th Ann. Rept., 1910).—These manurial trials have been carried on for eleven years. The crops are mixed grasses without clover, now in its seventh year on the ground, mangolds, and broad red clover, second year. The crops in 1910 and the results of the continuous manuring are given in this report. Nitrate of lime was used with good results on the mixed grasses and mangolds.

FIELD CROPS.

Breeding of Rust-resistant Wheats (J. B. Pole Evans, Jour. Agric. — Science, Vol. iv., Pt. 1, May, 1911: Cambridge University Press).— — This work is concerned with South African cereal rusts, but some of the conclusions reached are of general importance. The Black rust (Puccinia graminis) was the species investigated. Two varieties oi wheat which are immune to Black rust in the district where the work was carried on and two susceptible varieties were crossed, and the resulting hybrids, as well as the parents, were inoculated with the — rust. A number of experiments showed clearly that the hybrids were even more susceptible than the susceptible parents. This is in accord- — ance with the results of Biffen’s trials with Yellow rust (Puccinia

glumarum). Further, it was found that the rust taken from these . hybrids now readily infected the immune parent plants, and also rust from the susceptible varieties which had contracted it from the hybrids behaved in the same way. It appears therefore that a hybrid

plant may, by acting as an intermediary, play an important part in the 4

1911. ] SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 679

transmission of rust from susceptible to immune varieties, and this may afford an explanation of the eventual failure of some rust-resistant varieties and of other obscure points connected with immunity.

Heating of Hay Ricks (Biedermann’s Zentralblatt fiir Agrikultur- chemie, August, 1911).—Analyses of heated hay from ricks having temperatures of 85° C. and 95° C. (165° F.—183° F.), and of normal hay from the same ricks, showed that heating is accompanied by a decrease in the content of the hay in pentosans and carbohydrates. The following was the actual composition of the dry matter :—

Heated Unheated hay. hay.

Per cent. Per cent. Ash A Garay Aer ce OR 1 UC 8°4 EOCENE a Wetec se se DES 10°8 IRENEOSANS Wiki oihin es aug) @2OL0 24°0 Grade MDE oe oooh ae BS. 4 B10 Fat PO Mae neat cc acona Stel 2°0 @onbohydrates:..”...) 2.402 2072 222

The acidity produced by heating was found to be due principally to formic acid. Samples of gas from the interior of a heated rick were taken and found to consist of 7 per cent. carbonic acid gas, 1274 per cent. oxygen, and 80 per cent. nitrogen. As the composition of the atmosphere is about 20 per cent. oxygen and 80 per cent. nitrogen, it would appear that in addition to forming carbonic acid gas, some of the oxygen (06 per cent.) combines with the carbon remaining in the hay.

It has been suggested (see Journal, June, 1908, p. 221) that heating is due to the action of bacteria, but the fact of the oxygen combining with the hay would seem to indicate that it is due to oxidation. In these experiments the number of bacteria found in the heated hay, either by microscopic examination or by obtaining gelatine cultures of the hay, was insufficient to account for the heating. Microscopic examination of a stem of blackened hay revealed a normal epidermis and a parenchymatous tissue with cell walls intact, so that bacteria could not have found their way into the interior of the cells. It appears therefore that the heating of hay cannot be ascribed to the action of bacteria.

Experiments in the laboratory seemed to confirm the opinion that heating is due to oxidation. Tubes containing hay and filled with oxygen were sealed up and heated, and the oxygen was found to enter partly into combination with the hay, in addition to forming carbonic acid gas. A greater resemblance to hay heated in the rick Was obtained from tests with grass dried in a vacuum, air-dried hay having already been more or less oxidised. Further experiments showed that the effect of oxygen on hay begins at about 33° C. (95° F.), the production of carbonic acid gas, and the combination of oxygen with the hay, taking place at this temperature; and the presence of moisture was found greatly to influence this oxidation. A section of a

hay stem so treated could not be distinguished either under the micro-

scope or by analysis of dry matter from hay naturally heated in the

rick,

Varieties of Wheat (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy.

Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—The varieties tested were sown in Novem-

ber, 1909, after a well-manured potato crop. The yields were as fol-

680 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [NOV.

oa a | lows (head corn, per acre) :—Wilhelmina, 474 bush.; Red Admiral, _ | 37°3 bush.; Cambridge No. 1 (Little Joss), 30°3 bush.; White Stand-up, | 296 bush.; Treasure, 32°8 bush.; Sensation, 31°3 bush.; Red Marvel, 26'7 bush.; White Marvel, 25°6 bush.; Dreadnought, 22°8 bush.; and — Cambridge No. 2, 20:0 bush. Cambridge No. 1 is a cross between Girkha and Square Head, and is grown for its rust-resisting proper- | ties, as well as for its good yield, whereas Cambridge No. 2 is a cross __ between Rough Chaff and Red Fife, and is grown mainly for its strength. The Dutch variety, Wilhelmina, was sown on March 5th, Igio, at the rate of 9 pecks per acre, and manured with a top-dressing of 8 cwt. soot per acre in May; this variety stood up well, tillered out splendidly, and gave the highest yield. Three of the French varieties, Dreadnought, Sensation, and Treasure, were so backward that re- sowing had to be carried out in March. The ordinary English variety, Red Admiral, produced a larger crop than any of the French or Cambridge wheats. The yield of Dreadnought was low, and both the Cambridge wheats were somewhat disappointing in their yields. In | regard to quality, the two Cambridge wheats stood highest. Red Admiral was the better of the two English varieties, White Stand-up being inferior and weak. Of the French wheats, Red Marvel and White Marvel were the best in regard to quality, Dreadnought being a very poor sample. Wilhelmina was also considered a poor sample | with very little strength.

Varieties of Lucerne (Repi. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy. | Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, ig10).—Three varieties of lucerne—Provence, — American, and Canadian—first sown in 1905, remained on the ground — in I910. Three cuttings of each variety were obtained, the yields of green produce per acre being from Provence seed, 9 tons 8 ewt.; | American seed, 9 tons 4.cwt.; and Canadian seed, 16 tons 10 cwt. As in the four previous years, the Canadian variety gave a markedly | higher crop than the other two. Inquiries have failed to discover | what particular variety the Canadian seed used at Woburn originally | was, and the experiment has been discontinued. Fresh seed of known | origin will, however, be obtained from Canada, and compared with | I, Turkestan, Provence, and other varieties of lucerne commonly obtain- | | able.

Growth of Sugar Beet (Rept. on the Woburn Field Expts., Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—A plot of sugar beet was grown in | 1910 and compared with mangolds, the two crops being grown under} the same conditions. The sugar beet seed used was white Silesian | beet drilled on April 26th, r91r0. The crop was pulled on November) 2nd, the weight of roots per acre being 12 tons 2 cwt. in the case} of sugar beet, and 31 toms 12 cwt. in the case of mangolds. on He of samples from each crop showed the mangolds to contain 6 per cent.| of sugar, and the sugar beet 14°53 per cent. of sugar. The sugar beet| was grown, like the mangolds, in rows 24 in. apart, whereas for a} factory they would probably be grown only 18 in. apart, and the yield] might be increased by fully one quarter. On the other hand, the | beet was much the more expensive crop to raise. :

Elliot System of Laying Down Grass (Rept. of the Consulting Chemist, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—Two samples of § i} were sent to the Consulting Chemist of the Royal Agricultural Societ

Ly ee ee ae 4 - - as _ oat ae ee SF — me = ™ o— oe & patna £, yy =< —_

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TOiIl.| SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 681

of England for analysis in 1910, on one of which the Elliot system of laying down grass had been adopted, and on the other an ordinary grass seed mixture had been sown and basic slag had been given in addition. The soil on, which Elliot’s system had been adopted contained more organic matter, nitrogen, lime, potash, and phosphoric acid than the soil on which the ordinary grass mixture had been sown, so that, presuming the soils to have been originally alike, it would appear that an improvement had been effected under the system of laying down grass advocated by Mr. Elliot.

IEW Eo LOCK.

The Inheritance of Milk Vield in Cattle (Scientific Proc. of the Roy. Dublin Soc., Vol. 13 (N.S.), No. 7, June, 1911).—Professor James Wilson suggests in this paper, from an examination of milk records, that milk yield is a factor inherited according to Mendel’s principles.

Danish records, relating to the breed of Red Danish cows, were chiefly

considered, as British records have seldom been kept for a long enough period to give information relating to several generations of

“cows, and American records usually refer to the butter yield, which

‘inherited separately. In order to consider the performance of a cow

during a lactation period, it was necessary to apply corrections to the record when the lactation period had been prolonged owing to a longer interval than the usual twelve months between two calvings, and also on account of the natural rise in milk yield with the advancing age of the cow. With regard to the latter point, Professor Wilson considers, from an examination of the records of the Irish Department of Agri- culture’s farms, that a cow’s yield usually increases up to the birth of her fourth or fifth calf, i.e., when she is six or seven years old, and

that the total increase from the first to the fourth or fifth calf is

on the average about 50 per cent. The records of a number of Danish cows and their progeny for

‘several generations are given in the paper, and Professor Wilson

concludes from them that improvement in milk yield by breeding is not a slow and gradual process as has formerly been supposed. If a daughter is not on an approximate equality with her dam as a milk producer she is either much higher or much lower. He divides these cows into three grades, and suggests a Mendelian explanation of the differences between mother and daughter, viz., that the extreme grades

are the parent strains, and the intermediate, the hybrid. The records that have been obtained of the progeny of a few bulls also lead to thé

Same conclusions.

DAIRVING.

Effect of Gocoa-nut Cake and Linseed Gake on the Gomposition of Butter Fat (Analyst, September, 1911).—An experiment carried out at the Midiand Agricultural College on the feeding of dairy cows with

cocoa-nut cake and linseed cake was summarised in this Journal for

October, igtr, p. 597- In this paper Mr. H. T. Cranfield gives the results of the butter tests of the milk of the cows used in the experi-

y f ment,

_ Details as to the feeding of the animals will be found as above. 6 Ua

682 SUMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. [NOV.,

The conclusions reached from the butter tests were that cocoa-nut cake produced a butter which gave a refractometer figure below the

normal, while the Polenske number was very high; the Reichert-Meissl

number was, however, quite normal. Feeding with linseed cake in-

fluenced the butter in respect to the Polenske number, butters from this source giving a figure much below the normal; the refractometer

figure was also influenced, a distinct rise being noticeable. No very — great differences were shown in the texture and flavour of the two sets

of butter compared in this experiment. The butter from the cocoa-nut cake, however, had as a rule a firmer and less oily texture and better

flavour than the linseed-cake butter.

Colouring of Milk (Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Vol. 71, 1910).—This experiment consisted in examining various samples of milk with an apparatus known as a Tintometer, in order to determine the nature of the colouring matter of the milk. By the aid of this apparatus it is possible to ascertain the exact combination of dominant colours (red, yellow, and blue) necessary to match a particular shade of colour in a sample of butter or milk, and to calculate, from figures on the coloured glasses used in the Tintometer, which are graded on the basis of equivalent colour value, the percentage of black (combina- tion of the three dominant colours in equal PEGE auens) to either, orange or yellow.

Three samples of milk were dealt with—(1z) Devon, (2) separated milk coloured with annatto to resemble the Devon milk, and (3) separated milk not coloured. The milks for the purpose of examina- tion were put into a tube graduated to show sections of milk of various thicknesses. Red, blue, and yellow glasses were used in the Tintometer, _ and the colours developed (whether black, orange, or yellow) by the | glasses are given in the report, together with the percentage of blaclz fo | orange and black to yellow colours. It is shown that the black in the annatto colouring material used dies out as density increases, whilst the black in the milk increases in density under the same conditions. | The decrease of black percentage between the Devon and the coloured © milk is stated to point to the use of a colouring material purer in colour than the milk, whilst the increase in the percentage of black in the separated milk when compared with the Devon is stated to be what would be expected when the butter fat has been abstracted. It) is submitted that the experiment goes to show that colour measure- ments by the Tintometer disclose (what cannot be determined by

ordinary vision) the presence of an added colour material to separated milk. |

DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK. | . 4

ty Mortality among Calves (Harper Adams Agric. Coll., Supplementary h Bulletin to Annual Report, 1909).—This investigation was undertaken| to discover the cause of death among calves on a farm in Shropshire. Not one calf had been reared on this farm since the tenant had been, in occupation, although calves brought in had thriven well. | - In all cases the symptoms were a weeping from the eyes from the second to the third day, continuing until the fourth or fifth day, when it became almost purulent and inflamed the eyes. The anima then became gradually weaker, losing flesh very rapidly, and —_

| i

1911.) GROUNDS ALLOTTED UNDER INCLOSURE ACTS. 683

ally lying down with its head turned to one side. The muzzle was dry and milk was refused altogether. On the seventh to the ninth day the calf became powerless, passed into a comatose condition, com- menced to blow, and was soon dead. On post-mortem examination the condition found was that of acute broncho-pneumonia.

Dr. Wilson, who investigated the disease, came to the conclusion that it was one of the ‘‘septicemias’’ of young calves. He also considered that the infecting germ was probably taken into the body through the alimentary canal with the first sucking of the teats and withdrawal of the milk. When carried direct into the fourth stomach, the germs grow so rapidly that they soon overpower the ordinary lactic and other digestive bacteria. Three other channels of infection are possible, viz., through the navel wound, intra-uterine infection prior to birth, and inhalation of the germis with dust, &c., but no evidence was found of them. .

The method of treatment adopted by Dr. Wilson consisted in dis- infecting the navel as soon as the calves were born, removing the

calves into a perfectly new box, and feeding them with milk contain-

ing a preparation of living lactic acid bacilli. With this treatment none of the calves born showed any symptom of illness, and are all doing well.

Acute Contagious Mastitis in Cows due to the Bacillus ‘‘ Lactis aerogenes’ (J. A. Gilruth, Vet. Journal, April, 1911).—An attack of inflammation of the udder, which affected 30 cows out of a herd of 40, was found to be due to the bacillus Lactis aerogenes, which had not formerly been proved to be pathogenic for bovines. Experiments with the bacillus showed that it was non-pathogenic when inoculated into the tissues of cattle, but caused acute inflammation when introduced into the udder of a cow in milk. The author suggests that many of the ordinary sporadic cases of acute mastitis so frequently observed in cows, especially soon after calving, and generally attributed to blows, chills, &c., may be due to this organism, which is common in dairy premises. The bacilli are few after the first few days after infection, and are liable to be overlooked. In this outbreak the infec- tion was spread by means of an insufficiently cleaned milking machine.

OFFICIAL NOTICES AND CIRCULARS.

The following is a summary of the statement on this subject which appears in the Report on the proceedings of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries under the Tithe, Commons, and

Recreation Grounds other Acts for 1910 [Cd. 5,689. Price 43d.|. Allotted under By Section 28 of the Commons Act, 1876, the Inclosure Acts, ‘ttustees of recreation grounds allotted under the Inclosure Acts are required to make

reports to the Board at such intervals of not less than three nor more than five years as the Board may direct, in respect of the recreation grounds under their management. Reports having last been called

for in 1905, it was necessary, in compliance with the Act, again to obtain reports in 1910. Recreation grounds set out under the Inclosure Acts were allotted

to the churchwardens and overseers for the time being of the parish

EN

‘ 4 "

684 GROUNDS ALLOTTED UNDER INCLOSURE ACTS. [NOV.,

in which the ground was situated, to be held by them in trust as | places of exercise and recreation for the inhabitants of the neighbour- hood. The Local Government Act, 1894, transferred to parish councils = from the churchwardens and overseers the control and management — of the recreation grounds, together with all powers, duties, and liabilities in respect thereof. A parish council has the additional power > —not possessed by the churchwardens and overseers—of making and — enforcing bye-laws for the regulation of the recreation ground, with — all such powers as may be exercised by an urban authority under the Public Health Acts in relation to recreation grounds and public walks. In parishes where there is no parish council the recreation grounds are transferred, subject to all trusts and liabilities affecting them, from the churchwardens and overseers to the chairman of the parish meeting — and the overseers. .

The total number of recreation grounds set out tee se Inclosure Acts from 1845 to I910 was 350, and it appears that only 29 are still vested in the churchwardens and overseers, the remainder having been ~ transferred to the charge of the local authorities. The reports indicate — that the transfer had in many instances resulted in the et of the recreation grounds; and in the case of 30 the power of making bye-laws for their regulation had been utilised.

An appendix in the Report gives a summary of all the report received in tgt0, and the details therein given afford information to those interested as to the present position of the recreation grounds and the extent to which they are now available for public use. In the case of 259 it is stated that they are more or less used for the purpose to which they were dedicated. In 91 cases they were not used — for, recreation; but in 56 cases the herbage was let, and in 19 cases the rent was applied to the hiring of ground more suitable or con- veniently situated for recreation; while in 14 other cases the rent is accumulating with a view to the purchase of other land. In 35 cases no use whatever appears to be made at present of the ground.

On no: previous occasion has so exhaustive an inquiry been made into the position in regard to these recreation grounds, and in some instances there would seem to be a danger that the indifference of | the inhabitants to their rights may, unless greater vigilance is exercised | in the future, lead to the desuetude of the grounds, and eventually to | their loss to the public. It must be admitted that in many cases under the earlier awards the piece of land allotted as a recreation ground was from its nature and situation unsuitable for the purpose. No doubt in many villages there was no public demand at the time for such an allotment, and it was made, therefore, in a perfunctory manner rather with the view to compliance with the requirements of the law, or of the Inclosure Commissioners, than in the belief that it was of any practical utility. It is‘thus, perhaps, not surprising that it should sometimes have been thought that any rough piece of land in the parish, which was not of much value for any other purpose, wo - sufficiently meet this requirement. Cases have been brought to the notice of the Board in which it is clear that the existing allotment 1s not, and cannot be made, suitable for purposes of recreation, and the attention of the trustees was directed to their powers of sale or change and to the obligation which lies upon them in fulfilment

1911.| RESULTS OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 685

their trust to make use of such powers. In some other cases it was found that the herbage had been let, but that the rents had not been applied in accordance with the provisions of the Inclosure Acts. Reference has been made to those cases in which no use whatever appears to be made of the recreation ground, but probably the danger of the loss of public rights may be even greater in those cases where the herbage is let. This is expressly permitted by the Inclosure Acts; and it is obvious that the feeding off of the grass is quite consistent with the exercise by the public of their right of using the ground. for purposes of recreation. When the herbage is let the right of the parishioners to the use of the ground remains, and no agreement to let which purported to prevent such user would be valid. But there is reason to believe that in some cases the recreation ground is let to the occupier of adjoining land, and is used by him to the practical exclusion of the public, and a long continuance of a tenancy under these circumstances may, and in fact sometimes does, lead to difficulty when an attempt is made to re-assert the right of public user. Under Section 74 of the Inclosure Act, 1845, allotments were set out in 94 cases—with a total area of 464 acres—to private individuals, subject to the obligation of maintaining the fences, preserving the surface, and permitting the land to be used for exercise and recreation by the inhabitants of the parish and neighbourhood. This section was repealed by Section 25 of the Commons Act, 1876, and as periodical reports have not been required in respect of these allotments, no in- formation as to the present position of these recreation grounds is available except in a few cases which have been especially brought to the notice of the Board.

_A list, extracted from the awards in the custody of the Board, of all the grounds which were so set out is given in the Report. The Board have no information as to the present position of these grounds, but it is not unreasonable to assume that the right of recreation has mot in every instance been more effectively maintained in the case ot those allotments which were entrusted to private individuals than in

_ the case of those which were placed in charge of public authorities. A memorandum is also printed in the Report as to the law relating to recreation grounds allotted under the provisions of the Inclosure ‘Acts, 1845 to 1899. |

_ At a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, heid at Sheffield on September 6th, 1910, certain papers were ee ; read before the Agricult i _ The Interpretation before oa gricu ural Subsection of the

Association on ‘“‘The Magnitude of Error in

of the Results eee 3

Agricultural Experiments,’ and in view of the importance of the subject the Association eg suggested that the Board should undertake their publication with a view to securing for them a wider circulation than they would obtain if issued merely under the auspices of the _ Association.

| copie ge a

of Agricultural ____ Experiments.

. Beat Soa ee

This suggestion was adopted, and a collection of papers on the _ Interpretation of the Results of Agricultural Experiments,’”’ by Messrs. age. Hal MCA. E.RS., E.. J. Russell, D:Sc., T..B. Wood, .M.A,,

ie lait ha a ie SP min MeN ae Ag Du

5

= othe Lag ety

686 IMPORTATION AND OTHER REGULATIONS. [NOV,,

S. U. Pickering, M.A., F.R.S., and S. H. Collins, M.Sc., has been ~ issued as a Supplement to the present number of the Journal. | The object of the papers is to draw attention to the liability of errors arising in drawing deductions from agricultural experiments and to emphasise the points to which special care and attention should be devoted in preparing schemes for the carrying out of such experi- ments. It is hoped that they will be of service to the Governing Bodies of Agricultural Coileges and to County Education Authorities in under- taking such experiments, and also to agricultural writers and farmers by leading them to appreciate the Tee which should be attached to the results obtained. q The Supplement may be obtained at the Office of the Board, — 8 Whitehall Place, S.W., price 4d., post free; it is supplied to sub- — scribers to the Journal without extra charge.

No outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease had up to October toth been — : discovered on premises outside the two adjoining parishes of Middlezoy — 4 and Othery, near Bridgwater, but within the

Foot and Mouth former parish the existence of the disease had Disease in Somerset, by that date been confirmed amongst . stock of nine different owners, whilst one ”

outbreak had been detected in the parish of Othery in marshes which — adjoin those in the neighbouring parish in which the disease has appeared. *. The outbreaks (ten in all) have occurred amongst cattle pastured in the marshes within a radius of about a mile of the village of | Middlezoy, and the later outbreaks are believed to be connected directly or indirectly with the original outbreak which occurred at Manor Farm | on September 2gth. a All the cattle and sheep pastured in the fields in which the disease — has appeared have been slaughtered by order of the Board, and in certain cases cattle in the adjoining pastures have also been slaughtered with a view to prevent the further spread of the disease. ea Animals in the vicinity have been kept under daily observation by the Veterinary Inspectors of the Board with a view to the ear detection of any further cases of the disease. | In view of the fact that the disease has been confined to a com- ) paratively restricted area, an Order was made which came into force | on Cctober 11th modifying substantially the restrictions in force in the | Scheduled District as regards those parts of it more remote from the © outbreaks. =

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

Importation of Live Stock into the United States. —Regulations j regarding the inspection and quarantine of live stock imported into the — United States were issued on May 3rd, 1911, —

Importation and supersede all previous regulations on the |

and other Regulations subject. The following is a summary of these regulations in so far as they relate to livé

stock imported from the United Kingdom. -

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1911.] IMPORTATION AND OTHER REGULATIONS. 687

Ports of Entry.—Horses, cattle, sheep, and other ruminants and swine which are subject to both quarantine and inspection must enter through the following ports:—Boston, New York, Baltimore, San Francisco, San Diego, and Port Townsend, or at certain specified stations on the boundary between the United States and Mexico and the United States and Canada.

Horses.—All horses imported into the United States from any part of the world except North America are required to pass a veterinary inspection at the port of entry, conducted by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Horses found to be affected with any contagious disease are to be isolated, and the landing of such horses may be refused.

Cattle, Sheep, and Other Ruminant Animals.—All ruminants must be accompanied by a certificate from the local authority of the district in which they have been continuously located for six months preceding shipment, stating that no contagious pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, anthrax, rinderpest, or any other disease contagious to cattle, except tuberculosis and actinomycosis, has existed in the district for one year previous to the date of shipment.

Swine.—Swine must be accompanied by a certificate similar to the one required for cattle, sheep, and other ruminants, but relating to.the existence of foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera, swine plague, and erysipelas.

Affidavit for Ruminants and Swine.—All ruminants and swine imported into the United States must also be accompanied by an affidavit of the owner, stating that the animals have been continuously Iccated in the district whence shipped for six months preceding the

date of shipment, that no contagious disease affecting the species of

animals imported has existed among them, nor among any animals o: their kind with which they have come in contact for the six months preceding shipment, and that no inoculation has been practised among the animals during the preceding year; and an affidavit is required from the importer, or his agent supervising the shipment, stating that the animals have not passed through any district infected with con- tagious disease affecting the kind of animals, that they have not been exposed in any possible manner to the contagion of any contagious diseases, and that the animals, when not driven, have been shipped in clean and disinfected cars and vessels direct from the farm where purchased. Certificates and affidavits are to be presented to the col- lector of customs at the port of entry.

Period of Quarantine.—The period of quarantine for cattle imported trom Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands is 30 days, and for sheep and other ruminants and swine 15 days, counting from the date of arrival at the quarantine station. Cattle and sheep imported — for immediate slaughter at the port of entry may be imported without quarantine. Food and attendance of animals in quarantine is to be provided by the owner of the stock; in case of omission, food and

attendance will be provided by the Bureau of Animal Industry, and

the cost will be recoverable from the owner. Tuberculin Test for Cattle.—All cattle six months old or over

imported from Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands directly into the United States, and which are subject to quarantine, must be

688 IMPORTATION AND OTHER REGULATIONS. [NOV.,

tested with tuberculin by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry — before being exported, or after arrival at the animal quarantine station at the port of entry; and, when considered necessary, a subsequent tuberculin test of imported cattle wili be made during the last two © weeks of the quarantine period. The importation of cattle reacting to the test will be prohibited, or the animals may be disposed of as specified below. Persons desiring animals tested before shipment should address the Inspector of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, care of the United States Consul’s Office, Liverpool. “ Permits Required for Imported Animals.—Two permits must be obtained from ithe United States Secretary of Agriculture, one stating the number and kind of animals to be imported, the port, and probable date of shipment, which will, on presentation to the American Consul at the port of shipment, entitle the animais to a clearance; the other | permit stating the port at which the animals are to be landed and ~ I quarantined, and the approximate date of their arrival, this assuring the " reception of the number and kind of animals specified, at the port and quarantine station, on the date prescribed for their arrival, or at any time during three weeks immediately following, after which the permit — will be void. Permits must be in the name of the owner of, or mine for, each separate lot of animals. Permits will be issued to quarantine at such port as the importer may elect, so far as facilities exist at such port, but in no case will permits for importation at any port be granted in excess of the accommodation of the Government quarantine station at such port. ; Papers by United States Consuls.—United States Consuls have instructions to give clearance papers or certificates for animals from their districts intended for exportation to the United States only upon presentation of permits as above provided, with dates of probable arrival and destination corresponding with the permits, and in no case for a number in excess of that mentioned therein. When shipments — originate in the interior of the country these permits should be sub- mitted to the Consul of the district, and through the forwarding agent to the Consul at the port of embarkation. * | Dogs.—All dogs are subject to inspection at the port of entry, and with the exception of ‘‘house dogs’’ are to be subjected to quarantine | for a period not exceeding two weeks, or until it can be determined whether such dogs are the hosts of the tapeworm (Tenia cenurus). Animals found to be infected must be medically treated, and held in quarantine until free from infection of this or of other communicable disease. The ports of entry for dogs, other than house dogs, are | limited to the ports specified for animals subject to both inspection and quarantine. | Inspection.—All animals imported into the United States hie are subject to inspection ‘will be carefully inspected by an Inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and all animals found to be free from disease and not to have been exposed to any contagious diseasé will be admitted into the United States, subject to the provisions for quarantine, except as otherwise provided. Quarantine Release.—A release from quarantine will be civela 0 each owner for the number and kind of animals belonging to h which are discharged from quarantine, and the release will be a

“i91r.] IMPORTATION AND OTHER REGULATIONS. 689

‘certificate of fulfilment of quarantine regulations. In case an im- portation of animals is owned by more than one person, a release will be issued to each owner or agent covering the animals which belong to him.

Importation of Pure-bred Animals for Breeding Purposes.—The regulations relating to the duty-free importation of pedigree stock for

breeding purposes were given in this Journal for March, IgII, p. 1029.

Importers of such stock will not be required to give the bond or

stipulation for the production of registry certificates, provided tor

by these last regulations, until the end of the quarantine period, in

order that they may avail themselves of such period to procure from the Department of Agriculture the required certificates of record and

pedigree. Disposal oj Diseased Animals.—Animals which are found to be | suffering from a contagious disease, and animals which have been in contact with them, are only permitted to be landed and quarantined at the discretion of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who may also order the aniinals to be valued and slaughtered. The regula- tions provide also for the disinfection of a vessel that has carried | diseased animals.

importation of Plants, Bees, and Exotic Animals into South Africa.— The laws in force in the various States of the Union of South Africa relating to the importation of plants, bees, and exotic animals have been consolidated by the Government of the Union in the “ Agricultural Pests Act, 1911,” of which Sections 8 to 13 deal with the importation of plants, and Sections 21 to 23 with the importation of bees and exotic animals.

Plants may be introduced into the Union from oversea countries by post or through the ports of Cape Town, Durban, East London, and Port Elizabeth, or other place which may be prescribed as a port _ Of entry by proclamation of the Governor-General.

_ The importation of eucalyptus, acacia, and coniferous plants, fresh

‘grapes, and peach stones is prohibited. In the case of any other plants the importer must obtain a permit from the Department of Agricul- ture, which permit may limit the number of articles to be introduced thereunder to 10 rooted plants or too cuttings of one variety. No permit is, however, required for fruit, bulbs, tubers, vegetables, such ‘portions of plants as cannot be propagated, and such herbaceous plants as may in the future be specified by the Minister of Agriculture. The _ following articles, in addition to requiring a permit, must be imported | a under the supervision of an officer of the Department of Agriculture, -and under such precautions as the Department may in each case pre- ‘scribe :—Grape vines and other plants of the family Vitaceze; sugar- _ Canes; plants cultivated for the production of rubber; tea plants and | €otton seeds. _| __ All plants, together with the materials in which they are packed, _| May be examined by an officer of the Department of Agriculture, for _ | the purpose of discovering whether any insect pest or plant disease is 43 _ Present. This officer may order disinfection or other such treatment as _| 48 prescribed by the Department, the costs of such treatment being _ | Chargeable to the consignee, and in certain cases also the destruction

6] _ of the plants affected. The consignee may be asked to furnish par-

-

690 DEMAND FOR MACHINERY ABROAD, . [NOV.,

ticulars of any parcel of plants imported, as to name and address of consignor, number and kind of the packages, names, quantities, varie- ties, and grade marks of the plants and place of origin of each of such plants.

The importation of bees, their larvz, or eggs, and used apiaries and apiary appliances is prohibited, and the Governor-General is empowered to prohibit the introduction into the Union of any kind of exotic — animal.

Importation into Sweden of Animal Products from Countries infected with Foot-and-Mouth Disease.—A decree of June 22nd, 1911, prohibits the importation into Sweden of the following animal products from countries infected with Foot-and-Mouth Disease :—Unmelted tallow, unmelted fat, snouts, blood and fresh bones, used implements, hay and straw, entrails, hair, bristles, wool, horns, hoofs, and unprepared hides and skins.

Wool which has been washed and combed may, however, be im- ported if accompanied by the certificate of a Swedish Consul or other public authority at the port of shipment to the effect that the wool — has been so treated; and the importation of entrails, hair, bristles, a wool, horns, hoofs, and unprepared hides and skins is permitted — through certain ports, if they have been factory cleaned, scraped, washed, dried, and salted, as the case may be. They may also be — disinfected at the port of entry. ,

The full text of the decree can be seen at the Offices of the Board, 8, Whitehall Place, S.W.

Duty-free Admission of Machinery and Fertilisers into Turkey.—A decision of the Turkish Ministry of Finance towards the end of 1910 allowing agricultural machinery and imple-

Demand for ments to be admitted into Turkey free of duty |

Agricultural until August 14th, 1911, has now been fol-_

Machinery lowed by a law, dated June 5th, 1911, under 4 Abroad. which these articles will continue to be ad-

mitted duty-free. The new law also exempts chemical fertilisers from duty. The law does not limit the period during which these conces- sions are to remain in force. (Board of Trade Journal, September | 21st, IgII.)

Agricultural Machinery in Manchuria.—The British Acting Commer- cial Attaché at Peking (Mr. H. H. Fox) states that according to informa- tion received from the engineer of the Manchurian Government, © American manufacturers are endeavouring to introduce their agricul- | tural machinery into Manchuria, and are offering to sell steam ploughsy§ reapers, &c., on long credit terms.

The objections commonly urged against the employment of agri- cultural machinery in China proper, viz. :—the small size of the farms and fields, the lack of capital among the peasant proprietors, and the Z extreme cheapness of agricultural labour—do not apply with equal force to Manchuria, where farming operations are conducted on a large scale and labour has to be imported and is not always available in sufficient 2 quantity. (Board of Trade Journal, September 21st, 1911.)

IQI1.] NOTES ON AGRICULTURE ABROAD. 691

Agricultural Machinery in Siberia.—The following information is from the report by the British Vice-Consul at Omsk (Mr. S, Randrup) on the trade of that district in IgIo.

The imports into Siberia of harvesting machinery and agricultural implements—mowers and rakes, reapers and binders—are chiefly of American make, with some Canadian and Swedish; the demand for these increases yearly, owing to the large number of immigrants into Siberia.

The ploughs sold in Siberia are chiefly imported from Russia, but a number are also made in Siberia especially for use there. German ploughs are also on the market, but the home article is well able to compete with them both as regards quality and price, and it is believed that the importation of foreign ploughs will gradually decrease.

Portable engines with threshers are chiefly of British and German make, but the demand for them for the last two years has not been large, owing to crop failures. Some Russian-made portable engines are also being sold, but the turnover in this sort of engine is not a large one.

Agricultural Societies in Poland.—The following information is from the report by H.M. Consul at Warsaw (Mr. C. Clive Bayley) on the trade of Poland and Grodno in IgiI0 :— Notes on In 1898 the Russian Government promul- Agriculture Abroad. gated a law for the establishment of agricul- tural societies, and, taking advantage of the Opportunity thus offered, societies were formed in each of the ten governments of Poland. At the commencement of 1910 there were some twenty of these societies, with a membership of 2,497, and a capital of 455,000. This capital is the accumulation of the members’ subscrip- tions—in most cases £10 Ios.—to which sum the liability of each member is limited. The area worked by each society varies from a government to a district, except in the case of the Warsaw society, which operates in all ten governments, and which has increased its members’ subscriptions and liability to 4105 each. The object of these societies is to purchase for and sell to farmers and peasants agricultural machinery, manures, and other requisites. The capital, turnover, and profits of the various agricultural societies of Poland and Grodno, as extracted from their balance sheets for 1910, may be seen from the following table :—

Sale of— Share Government. Capital, Total. Agricultural Other MESES: Machinery. | Products.

a £ £ ere| eS Bees. =... ..| 12,400 |%113,000 30,800 43,200 | 187,900 ‘Siedlce... Bp Oba) S 7,700 41,300 16,700 34, 300 92,300 eS rr 2,700 9,000 3,600 11,800 24,400 Ciechanow Peek ii 800 FAGOO™, = 12800 4,200 15,600 ot cai ood Rane 4,000 24,500. |" -‘'5,800 10,600 4I,C0O te & Pata 7,000 54,700 8,000 5,300 68,000 1 a BEM sisi Tees cose 3,800 28,100 | 15,100 15,800 59,000 ny etre, 4,400 18,400 | 8,700 13,500 40,500

692 NOTES ON AGRICULTURE ABROAD, | [NOVS) ‘

An account of the activity of these associations in Russia generally _ was given in this Journal for November, 1gio, p. 680. a Agricultural Go-operation in Germany.—The following account of the growth and present position of agricultural co-operative societies in Germany is given in the Report of H.M. Consul-General, Sir Francis _ Oppenheimer, on the trade and industries of Germany in 1910 (F > Reports, Annual Series, No. 4773-) a

The co-operative society movement was in Germany originally an almost exclusively industrial one, and limited to the towns. Separate Be | agricultural organisations did not exist, and in so far as agriculturisiaay aq resorted to co-operative organisation for satisfying their need for credit they joined the societies in the towns. These had been well received, and spread rapidly under the energetic leadership of Dr. Schultze, one Delitzsch. The scheme adopted was, broadly speaking, the British co-operative system. Not till the ’sixties of the last century were the first beginnings of a purely agricultural co-operative system evolved, the object of which was not only the granting of credit, but also the purchase of goods. This movement assumed larger proportions only from about 1890 onwards, and then developed with exceptional rapidity. It was the period in which German agriculture commenced a more energetic political activity generally and when agricultural interests became prominent in all questions. According to expert estimates there existed at the end of 1908 about 16,500 loan associations with 2,300,000 members. The number of produce or trading societies at the same time was 4,829, with 476,259 members; the number of the distributive (store) was 2,110, with 1,131,453 members. The number of the build- ing societies was 800, with 150,000 members. The total membership of these societies was estimated at 4,400,000. ei

As far as the purely agricultural societies are concerned, the follow- ing table shows the growth in their numbers :— 3

1890. 1900. Agricultural Loan Associations ... ... L720 4 9,763 Co-operative Trading Associations ... | 537 1,115 Dairy Produce Associations... ... ... 639 1,917 Other Associations aaa ie au ret a IOI 84.1 Total of purely Agricultural Co- ; | operative Societies... 3,006 13,636

It follows that the agricultural societies have experienced thei greatest increase in the current century. The number of their mem bers is estimated at 2,000,000, and to every 2,600 inhabitants of the German Empire there is one agricultural society. The concentration of German agriculture into societies, therefore, by far exceeds the same tendency in the United Kingdom. The societies among themselves again grouped in federations, among which the Imperial. Union Agricultural Societies is the largest. On June 1st, 1910, the prominent among the members of this Imperial Union were the eré societies with 12,894 societies, of which 12,161 societies, with a mem

a

1911. | NOTES ON AGRICULTURE ABROAD. 693

bership of 1,111,174, have issued detailed reports for the year 1908. According to these reports they held 41,048,880 in share capital; re- serves, 42,184,850; £,66,915,880 savings; and 9,421,930 liabilities on

| current account. On the other hand, they had outstanding in advances

on current account £520,570,945 and £4,48,375,830 loans for fixed periods. The total advances granted in 1908 amounted to £36,998,300; 10,402 societies showed a profit of £359,320, but 1,193 had a loss of £4,68,775.

Other central federations worth mentioning are the Baden Federa- ) tion with 399 loan funds, the Wtrttemberg Federation with 1,115, the | Trier (Treves) Federation with 334, and the Union of Farmers with 57. These credit societies have proved extremely useful to agriculture; it has been said of them that they take the place of the village banker,

| as they entirely adapt themselves to the requirements of agriculture;

they are easily reached, they work cheaply, grant loans at a low rate of interest, and offer a safe deposit for savings. They educate the rural . landowner to a systematic economy. The interest demanded by these societies varies in different parts of Germany. In contrast to the town societies they often make advances for longer periods; thus the | Raiffeisen organisations had in 1908 granted 21 per cent. of their } advances for periods up to one year, but no less than 65 per cent.

| for periods of from one to ten years.

caf Besides the credit societies there are in Germany agricultural co- | Operative societies for building, colonising, distilling, steam threshing, | steam ploughing, buying and selling, for the sale of grain, the purchase | of coal, the erection of silos, the sale of milk, of dairy produce, and of

+ the produce of mills, for horse breeding, slaughtering, sale of alcohol,

_ sale of tobacco, sale of cattle, letting of pasture land, societies of

: | Vintners, of brick-kiln owners, &c. In the case of the Raiffeisen _ Organisations, the credit societies are also obliged to furnish their

members with manure and fodder. In 1908 this purchase amounted to 43,936,770 for 7,251 societies. | While the associations were originally founded exclusively on the

“4 principle of self-help, the practice has now been adopted of also placing

é | State aid at their disposal. In 1895 the Prussian Central Co-operative | State Bank (Zentral Genossenschafts Kasse) was founded for this pur- pose with a capital of £250,000, since raised to 43,750,000. This bank

_ | —for short called Preussenkasse—which has been capitalised with State _| Money, grants the Central Co-operative Federations cheap advances. _| The amount of these advances is regulated according to the total mem- | bers’ liability, deducting a pro rata sum as a safeguard. One of the P| conditions imposed on the associations by the Preussenkasse is that if | they take advantage of its cheap loans they must deal exclusively with | the Preussenkasse. At the end of i909 the total loans made by this _ | Central Bank to thirty-three Agricultural Co-operative Federations

| amounted to £4,341,227. _| — The importance of the agricultural co-operative association system in Germany can be finally illustrated by certain figures. The purchase by

. + the associations of kainit in 1908 amounted to 580,000 tons, from which - sales they received a discount of £17,500. The total purchase of salts my for manure was more than 400,000 tons. In the Imperial Federation

a | the total turnover amounted to 295,550,000. The assets were 4 16,700, 000. The working capital amounted to £16,590,000, of which

694 NOTES ON AGRICULTURE ABROAD. [NOv.,

414,825,000 were held on loan. The total liability of the individual 7 Central Federations amounted to £,13,180,000, 7.e., 89 per cent. of the borrowed capital. The costs of administration aimeenied to £43,643. The combined purchase of goods reached a value of £,9,350,000. The associations purchased, e.g., coal for 4,900,000. The value of manure sold was 42,500,000; of fodder, 42,435,000. The value of grain and potatoes sold amounted to £2,935,000. i,

Legislation as to Agricultural Produce in Denmark.—The Danish Parliament have recently passed an Act, dated April 12th, 1911, which amends the law as to the trade in butter and on agricultural — produce.

Under this Act the colouring of Danish butter by means of aniline dyes is prohibited, and no butter must be sold or imported which — contains preservatives other than common salt or more than 20 per cent. — of water. The sale or. importation of butter containing more than 16 per cent. and less than 20 per cent. of water is also forbidden except on the condition that the article is specially marked. :

The limit of water in butter exported from Denmark is fixed at | 16 per cent., and the butter must have been produced from pasteurised q cream or Ae in a dairy accepted for control. -

The prescribed brand (the Lurbrand) will in future be confine” 4 butter produced in dairies accepted for control, and must not be used | for other goods, and various provisions are made to prevent the misuse of the brand. The use of the Lurbrand is compulsory in the case butter produced under the control, except in certain circumstaniie specified in the Act, and the brand must be placed both on the packages and directly on the butter itself. Butter for export packed in hermetic. | ally-sealed receptacles is exempt from the provisions as to marking with the Lurbrand, but such butter must be specially marked to show that | it is Danish produce. Further regulations as to the Lurbrand may be made by the Minister of Agriculture, who is also empowered, if re- quested by the Dairy and Commercial Trades’ Organisations, to make | regulations as to the preservation of purity and cleanliness in creameries and on premises where butter is offered for sale. a

The Act also lays down the conditions on which manufacturers of butter from pasteurised cream or milk are accepted for control, and under which the control is regulated. Dairies accepted for control | are subject to inspection, and may be deprived of their right to use 5 the Lurbrand if the prescribed conditions are not observed. ayy

Imported Icelandic, Danish West Indian, or foreign agricultural produce (including butter, eggs, lard, tallow, honey, and meat, slaughter-offal, hermetically-packed goods, sausages, and other comes i- bles prepared from horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and poultry) must be marked with distinct marks or indications of origin, whether so d wholesale or retail, or exported, and the goods must not be marked in such a way as to suggest that they are of Danish origin. Shops or stores where such goods are kept must display a distinct notice to this effect, and blends of Danish and foreign lard must not be sold exported unless they are marked as directed by the Minister of A culture to indicate that they are blends. Lurbrand butter, also, if offe for sale within Denmark, must be conspicuously marked as such, must be kept in the original package.

IOI 1.] NOTES ON AGRICULTURE ABROAD. 695

—————

7 Imported fresh meat must, in addition, be marked as prescribed | by the Minister of Agriculture, and in the event of the export regulations of the country from which any of the articles above-mentioned come not being satisfactory, the Minister of Agriculture may forbid their importation or cause them to be submitted to examination.

Live Stock in Mexico.—According to reports from American Con- suls at Vera Cruz and Monterey, there are good opportunities for breeders to develop the sale of pure-bred male animals among Mexican farmers. .

Bulls of pure blood are imported for improving the native stock. On one ranch where Herefords have been bred for many years there has been developed what is practically a breed of Mexican Herefords. These are free from those diseases which usually affect imported stock, while possessing all the good qualities of the imported animals.

A trade in young bulls or calves might be built up in the Vera Cruz district, for when brought in at an early age they become acclimatised readily. To do this the importer ought to have a ranch at an altitude of not less than 4,000 ft., where he could keep his stock ‘and dispose of it as demand arose. A limited number of mature animals might be imported during the winter season for sale in the cooler parts of the district.

Agricultural Experiment Stations in Germany.—There are at the present time 72 agricultural experimental stations in Germany, with a staff comprising some 1,378 persons. Out of these stations 28 are

a

supported by one or other of the German states, 6 by provincial authori- ties, 29 by chambers of agriculture, and 8 by associations, while one is private. ‘

The receipts of these stations from various sources in 1909 were as follows (Archiv des Deutschen Landwirtschaftsrats, Berlin, 1911) :—

7

| Provincial Chambers ther I State. | Authorities. Rea ae Total. a Prussia 35,117 3,827 18,933 145,458 203,335 ; | Bavaria 125745 1,506 524 13,839 28,443 | Saxony _ 4,495 325 45 3,404 8,269 ) Wurtemburg : 2322 Bie <= 3,048 5,370 ’| | Baden... 25 Ova|| Ton vi 745 3,312 LSS T3008 ee aa 2,550 3,850 | | Mecklenburg-Schwerin 1,300 "| — 526 4,074 5,961 | | Saxe- Weimar Bae BO2 = ae 1,450 1,752 | Beeeenburg -. ... je |. 210 — 125 2227, 2,562 i Anhalt oer Shear T1000 — 1,355 Swi 7 3,041 " Beembure .. lk. 205) 41 a rat 4,265 4,660 | | Alsace- Lorraine ar 2218... '| — 37 2,071 4,526 i | Imperial Institute ...| 14,610 | 5 — ar | 14,610 — | ol eee ‘| Pe ieee oc. 785680 | 5,658 21,645 | 183,708 | 289,601 3 — PR RS EE EEE ee

Possibility of an Export of British Pedigree Cattle to Brazil—A ‘Teport from H.M. Acting-Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro (Mr. Ernest Hambloch) discusses the possibility of an export of British pedigree

=

2

696 NOTES ON THE WEATHER IN OCTOBER. [NOV., _

cattle to Brazil. H.M. Consul states that the present moment seems propitious for British breeders to turn their attention to this market.

The question is now being raised as to whether Brazil cannot begin to compete with the River Plate in the exportation of cattle and meat, and H.M. Consul is of opinion that, as the European markets require heavy cattle, the native breed, which is small, must first be improved.

The existing Brazilian race of cattle has been in-bred for so long and from small and somewhat poor cattle. that it is only natural that the breed should deteriorate. The question of importing European stock has, as yet, not received much attention, and the efforts made by the late President to encourage the importation of breeding cattle into the State of Minas Geraes have not been sufficiently well followed up during recent years by the Government of that State. The Govern- ment of the State of San Paulo is, however, now beginning to take © up the question seriously, and this may stimulate the State of Minas Geraes to fresh efforts to establish an industry for which it is admirably adapted.

During the first week (Oct. 1st to Oct. 7th) fair dry conditions were © experienced at times in all districts, but they were less frequent in the east and south of Great Britain than in the

stele west and north-west. Temperature was below — ont e Weather the average everywhere, especially in England — in October.

S.E., and there was generally a large deficiency in rainfall. Although largely in excess in Scotland W. and England N.W., bright sunshine did not, on, the whole, differ much from the- normal. The general condition was again fair and dry in the second week, but a good deal of mist and fog prevailed in the middle and later pala | of the week, and rain was experienced at times in nearly all districts. No rainfall, however, was recorded during the week in Scotland W. and x England N.W., and the falls in the other districts of Scotland and in several districts of England were very light. There was gency improvement in the amount of bright sunshine recorded compared wil the previous week. > The weather in the third week was at first generally fair, bub | afterwards became unsettled, with occasional rain in all districts. a | good deal of mist or fog was experienced in England about the middle of the week. ‘Very unusual’? warmth was recorded over the whole of England and in parts of Scotland, the excess of temperature above : the normal being as much as 6° in some English districts. Rainfall | generally was either ‘“‘moderate” or “light,” but was slightly abov the average in England S.E. and Scotland W. Bright sunshine dropped again to below the normal in all districts. Snow and sleet occurred in Scotland in the fourth week, ‘and the weather generally was in a very unstable condition. Rainfall over England was considerably in excess of the normal. Temperature w below the average in Scotland and the northern districts of Englan but above it elsewhere. The weather experienced during the thirteen weeks ended Septemb 1911 (roughly corresponding to the period of summer) has been © marked contrast to the average conditions during this period in the last

2

19g1I.] PRODUCE OF Hops. ! 697

thirty years, 1881-1910. On the average in this period during the last thirty years 480 hours of sunshine were experienced, whereas in 1911 660 hours were recorded on the average over the United Kingdom.

There were only thirty-five days in the summer of 1911 on which rain

was experienced, as compared with an average of forty-eight rain days during the thirty years, and the corresponding rainfalls were 5'5 ins. and 86 ins. The average temperature of the summer of 1911 was 60'4°, compared with an average summer temperature from 1881-1910

of 57°4°.

The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries have issued the following preliminary statement, dated Oct. 12th, showing the estimated total production of hops in the years 1911 and 1910,

aa of with the acreage and estimated average yield Ops: per statute acre in each county of England in which hops were grown. . Acreage Estimated Se Hotel Returned on | Average Yield oduce. @ountics, &¢: 5th June. per Acre. 1911. 1gto. || 1911. I 10. 1911. 1910. Cwts. Cwts. Acres. | Acres. Cwts. | Cwts. East ... ... || 61,606} 49,135 |) 5,718/ 5,779 10°77 | 8:50 Mid... ... || 79,101| 64,874) 6,966 | 6,942 || 11°36 | 9°34 Weald... .. || 86,032 72,886] 7,507] 7,357 || 11°46 | 9:91 eemty!). Total Kent || 226,739 | 186,895 || 20,191 | 20,078 || 11°23 9°31 Hants ... ... ... «. || 14,627] 16,946) 1,444) 1,411 10°13 | 12°01 Hereford ... ... ... || 29,256) 40,961 | 5,034} 4,987 5°81 | 8:21 - SETS). hs] aaa 4,269 5,341 500 514 8°54 | 10°38 Pieeckay) 5. ... .-. |) 29,847 | 22,878.) 2,698 | 2,653 1°06 | 862 Mvotcester =... ... :., || 22,630]. 28,666 3,061| 3,109 7°39 | 9:22 Winer Counties* ...' ... 655 988 128 134 a2) 7°37 Total ... ... |828,023 | 302,675 | $3,056 | 32,886 | 9°92 | 9:20

* Gloucester and Salop.

Note.—The estimated average yield per acre this year exceeds by one cwt. the average yield per acre of the previous ten years, and is three-quarters of a cwt. larger than in 1910. The increased yield per acre on a slightly increased acreage results in a total crop which exceeds

that of last year by 25,000 cwts. This year’s crop of 328,000 cwts., although larger than that of 1910, and still larger than that of 1900, is

less than that of 1908 by 143,000 cwts. It is also 69,000 cwts. below the average total crop of the decade of 1901-10, the reduction of acreage

having more than counterbalanced the increased yield per acre.

3°36

698

PRODUCE OF CORN,

Produce of Corn, Pulse and Hay

WHEAT

BARLEY

OaTSs

BEANS.

IPDAS oe

Hay from Clover, Sainfoin, &e.

Hay from Per- manent Grass.

Crops.

PULSE AND Hay CRops.

; Average Avere Heimated eae Acreage. Estimated | ageun Go | Yield per Acre.|| tha Ten Years 1901- 1911. 1910. TSA 1910. ||1911.) 1910. | ; | Qrs. Qrs. || Acrés. Acres. |) Bshls. | Bshls. || Bushels. England 7,359,142 | 6,478,839 || 1,804,045 | 1,716,629 |, 32°63 | 30°19 || 31°65 Wales . 135,430 135,986 | 38,487 39,428 || 28°15 | 27°59 || 26°82 Scotland . . 337,024 244,831 || 63,511 52,797 || 42°53 | 37°10 || 39°30 Great Br Britain. 7,832,196 6,859,656 | 1,906,043 | 1,808,854 || 32°87 | 30°34 pfs =: Seas | a i g | Engler 51256546 52910;892 | 74337543" | 2449:492 ou44 ae ales . 330,67 350,964 00 7,569 || 30°48 | 32°0 Scotland 786,423 797,157 ] 173,634 191,620 36°23 33°28 Great Britain. | 6,373,647 | 7,059,013 || 1,597,865 | 1,728,681 | Biegtal) 32507) | ee ee De ee #,841,736 1,857,731.|| 39°03 | 41°87 ales . 58,792 971,683 || 206,037| 205,093 || 33°35 | 37°90 Scotland 494530441 | 4535742 | 963,476 | 958,150 || 36°98 | 37°87 | Grex Britain. 14,294,036 15,228,625 || 3,010,649 | 3,020,974 || 37°98 | 40°33 England 917,591 | 1,032,377 294,059 | 256,528 || 24°96 | 32°20 Wales 3456 4,896 | 1,134 1,363 || 24°38 | 28°74 Scotland 39,092 46,447 9,464 9,493 || 33°04 | 39°14 Great Britain. 960,139 | 1,083,720 304,657 267,304 || 25°21 | 32°42 uneiand 458,975 496,588 139,150 151,823 | 26°39 | 26°17 : ales . 1,641 1,94 561 O.|| 23°40] 23°59 “7G Scotland A535 2,114 473 566.|| 25°96 | 20°88 || 27°55 Great Britain. 462,151 500,648 140,184 | 153,049 || 26°37 | 26°17 Tons. Tons. _ || Cwts. | Cwts. pheend 1177 4404 peter 1,465,383 1,485,573 24 ae ales 165,05 23457 172,049 169,939 | 21°5 27°63 Scotland 652,410 669,164 4375333 419,067 | 29°84 | 31°94 Great Britain. | 2,612,532 | 3,264,338 || 2,074,765 | 2,074,579 | 25°18 31°47 England 3,898,205 | 5,441,735 || 4,283,629 | 4,295,832 | 18°20 | 25°33 Wales . 446,227 584,968 547,194 | 545,109 | 16°31 | 21 46 Scotland 226,276 225,589 171,434 163,503 _ 26°40 | 27°50 Great Britain. | 4,570,708 | 6,252,292 || 5,002,257 | 5,004,444 | 18°27 | 24°99 | |

Note.—The Wheat crop of 1911,

quarters the crop of last year.

I bush

average.

el per acre.

amounting to 7,832,106 quarte is the largest returned since 1899, and exceeds by nearly one milli The yield per acre was 11 bush (36 per cent.) above the average of the preceding ten years, 23 bushels more than in Ig10, though smaller than in 1909 by ne Each of the other crops is more or less be The yield of Barley was 14 bushels per acre below aver. and the total crop is more than a million quarters less than average, and smaller than in any previous year on record. Oats over 2 bushels per acre short of an average, and the total crop is lesst

(NOV. am

The following preliminary statement shows the. estimated total produce and yield per acre of the corn, pulse, and hay crops in Great Britain in the year 1911, with comparisons for Ig10, and the average yield per acre of the ten years 1901-1910 :— .

>"

‘ — ane sD

1911.| CROP CONDITIONS ON NOVEMBER IST. 699

in any year since 1901. Beans were 5 bushels per acre below average, and notwithstanding a substantially increased acreage, gave a total crop of 120,000 quarters less than in 1910. The yield of Peas was slightly better than in 1910, but nearly a bushel per acre below average. Clover and ‘‘Seeds’” Hay yielded 5 cwt. per acre, or 16 per cent., below average, while Meadow Hay gave little more than three-fourths of an average. The total crop of Clover and ‘‘Seeds”’ Hay is the smallest since 1893, and of Meadow Hay the smallest since 1901. Altogether, the Hay crop of 1911, amounting to 7,183,240 tons, is 2,333,000 tons less than that of 1910, and about 20 per cent. below the ten years’ average.

)

The Crop Reporters of the Board, in reporting on the state of the crops and the agricultural conditions on November 1st, speak unani- Crop Conditions mously of the unusually excellent quality and

: oa condition of both wheat and barley when

in Great Britain

harvested, although here and there barley is on November Ist. rather steely and the grain is sometimes small. Oats are not so universally satisfactory, although quality and condition are generally very good. The yield of wheat was also good, as shown by the recently published preliminary returns, the total, on an area of 1,906,043 acres, amounting to 7,832,196 quarters, or 32°87 bushels per acre. 1,597,865 acres of barley yielded 6,373,647 quarters (3191 bushels per acre, or 13 bushels below average); while the oat harvest was distinctly poor, 3,010,649 acres yielding only 37°98 bushels per acre (more than 2 below average), or 14,294,036 quarters altogether. Relatively better results were secured in Scotland than in England.

Beans yielded only 25°21 bushels per acre, almost 5 bushels below average, and notwithstanding a substantially increased acreage gave a total crop of only 960,139 qr., or 120,000 qr. less than in Ig10. Peas were not so seriously deficient, the total being 462,151 qr., or 26°37 bush. per acre, which is less than 1 bush. below the average. :

Good progress has been made with potato lifting, which is prac- tically, or very nearly, finished throughout Great Britain. The potatoes are not large, but are generally of good quality, except where second growth has occurred; there is a considerable amount of this, but unusually little potato disease.

Mangolds have very generally been lifted in good condition, though the roots are mostly small. Turnips and swedes are almost everywhere a bad crop and much mildewed, some areas being entirely lost. In Scotland, however, and in the northern districts of England, the October rains had effected some improvement, and several reports state that these roots were still growing at the end of the month.

Excellent progress has, except on certain heavy lands, been made with autumn cultivation, the October rains having generally been adequate for the purpose, although here and there it is stated that they have been so much as to delay the work of sowing, and, rather more frequently, that they have not been sufficient to render the heavier lands workable, especially in the east of England. Large breadths of corn have been sown; indeed, in many places the winter wheat is

nearly all in the ground, and the young crop is everywhere looking very well.

2° Be2

700 NOTES ON CROP PROSPECTS ABROAD. _ [NOV.,

Seeds are generally very thin and patchy; in isolated instances a thick growth is mentioned, but this is decidedly exceptional. Many acres have been resown or ploughed up. Recent rains have effected — considerable improvement.

Live stock are still reported, generally, to be in poor “condition! and they seem to have made little progress during the month. Many reports state that fewer cattle are being fattened for market this season, largely on account of the anticipated shortage of keep during the winter, hay, straw, and roots all being deficient. The official returns of the hay crop show that clover and rotation grasses have yielded only 25:18 cwt. per acre throughout Great Britain as a whole, or 1 ton below the average, while the deficiency in hay from per- manent grass is over 53 cwt., the yield per acre being only 1827 cwt. Here also the Scottish returns are not so low as the English, being only 23 to 3 cwt. below the average. The total production of hay in Great Britain from both seeds and meadow amounts to 7,183,240 tons, which is 2,333,000 tons less than that of 1910, and about 20 per cent. below the average of the last ten years.

The Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics for October, 1911, issued by the International Institute of Agriculture, shows the production of the cereal crops this year from information received

Notes on up to October 20th. The countries for which Crop Prospects it is possible to give an approximate estimate ~ Abroad.

of the production are as follows :—In Europe: Prussia, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Hungary (including Croatia and Slavonia), Italy, Luxemburg, Nether- lands, Roumania, Russia in Europe (63 governments), Switzerland; in America: Canada and United States; in Asia: India, Japan, Russia in | Asia (10 governments); in Africa: Algeria (Departments of Alger and | Oran), Egypt, Tunis. | The principal additions which have been made to the tables are the © figures for barley and oats in France, and for wheat and barley in Egypt, | the latter country being included in the tables for the first time. The | data for Canada have undergone important changes in accordance with | the results of the recent census, and are referred to below. Wheat.—The production of wheat in Canada is now estimated to be 108,718,000 cwt., a reduction of 877,000 cwt. on the previous estimate. | The total production for all the countries included this month is 1,648,449,000 cwt., as compared with 1,642,968,000 cwt. in 1910, of an | excess of 03 per cent.; while the total area exceeds that of last year by 33 per cent. a | Rye.—The total production of rye in all the countries specified | (excluding Great Britain, India, Japan, Algeria, Egypt, and Tunis) is} 683,412,000 cwt., as compared with 708,657,000 cwt. last year, or 2 | decrease of 36 per cent. The area | planted is greater than that of | by 2 per cent. Barley.—The revised figures for Canada now place the yield as| 18,671,000 cwt., a reduction of 3,419,000 cwt. on the preceding estimate. The total production i in all the countries named above, with the exceria of India, is estimated to be 506,717,000 cwt., as against 509,827,000 cwt. '

said

191 1.| NOTES ON CROP PROSPECTS ABROAD. 701

last year, or a decline of 06 per cent. The area planted nearly equals that of 19!0.

Oats.—The revised figures for Canada place the yield for this cereal at 105,848,000 cwt., a reduction of 5,881,000 cwt. on the former estimate. The total production in all the countries named above (excluding India and Egypt) is 965,199,000 cwt., as compared with 1,064,278,o00 cwt. last year, or a decline of 93 per cent. The area planted is very little below that of IgIo.

The following supplementary notes are given :—

Russia.—In addition to the preliminary figures of the harvest of igi1 included in the general totals, the Institute has received from the General Direction of Agriculture preliminary figures for the probable yield of the more important cereal crops in Russia in Europe (including Ciscaucasia). These estimates have been calculated, for winter cereals, from the results of trial threshings, and for spring cereals from the number of sheaves harvested per deciatine, or from the general aspect of the crops. The figures are :—Winter wheat, 97,348,000 cwt.; spring wheat, 147,601,000 cwt.; total wheat, 244,949,000 cwt. Winter rye, 372,920,000 cwt.; barley, 176,677,000 cwt.; oats, 235,472,000 cwt.

Chile.—The areas sown to wheat and barley during the autumn of IgII are 1,852,000 acres and 370,000 acres respectively. The condition of each of these crops on October ist promises a yield 20 per cent. above the average. Weather conditions are favourable, and the germination and development of spring cereals are good.

Australia.—The area sown to wheat in 1911 is 7,862,000 acres, being an increase of 12 per cent. over the area sown in 1910. The condition of the crop on October Ist was average.

New Zealand.—The condition of winter wheat, barley, and oats on _ October Ist was average.

| Sweden.—The German Consul-General in Stockholm reports on _ October 23rd that the Swedish Agricultural Department estimates the condition of the crops as follows:—Winter wheat, 36; winter rye, | 34; barley, 35; oats, 31; potatoes, 2.7; sugar beet, 27 (Si VELY: good; 4=g00d; 3=average; 2=poor; 1=very ipoor). (Deutscher _ Reichsanzeiger, October 31st, 1911.) United States—The Crop Reporting Board of the Department of Agriculture reports that the preliminary returns of the production of _ Maize in 1911 indicate a total yield of about 2,776,301,000 bush., or an | average of 23.9 bush. per acre, as compared with 274 bush. nee acre- im 1910, and a ten-year average of 26:0 bush. The general average | as to quality is 806 per cent., as compared with 8y'2 last’ year, 84'2. in _ 1909, and 869 in 1908. The preliminary estimate of the average yield of potatoes is 80°6 bush., against an average yield of 93'4 bush. in tgto. The indicated yield is given as 281,735,000 bush., against 328,787,000 bush. in 1910. (Dornbusch, November 8th, 1011.) | Sugar Beet in Prussia.—From a report received fom the Foreign | Office the estimated yield of sugar beet for the whole of Prussia at the | Peetonine of October is s, 1395395 tons, or 5°94 tons per acre, as compared , | with 11 go tons per acre in 1910. - Hops.—From reports received through the Foreign Office, it is

|

j q ! | f i

OP ANIMAL DISEASES ON THE CONTINENT. [NOV.,

estimated that the yield of hops in Baden is 3,500 cwt.; Bavaria, 105,000 cwt.; Wurtemberg, 32,000 cwt.; Prussia, 6,500 cwt.; Alsace Lorraine, 58,000 cwt. The total production for Germany is 205,000 cwt., as against 398,300 cwt. in 1910. In the State of New York, the production is estimated to be from 25,000 to 27,000 bales, in Oregon 70,000 bales, in California 85,000 bales, in Washington 22,000 bales. Only a small proportion of this year’s crop in New York is of choice “ibaa and on the Pacific coast the quality is mixed.

A report on the recent hop fair in Warsaw states that the total — supplies, including a small quantity left over from last year, amounted © to 304,000 lb., against 582,000 lb. in 1910. The total sales amounted © to only 93,600 lb., as compared with 244,800 lb. last year, and prices ranged from about 32d. to 38d. per lb. .-

Potatoes on the Continent.—From reports received from the Foreign — Office, in France, the production in the following Departments of the | north is estimated to be as follows :—Ardennes, 40,250 tons; Nord, 78,750 tons; Pas de Calais, 82,000 tons; Somme, 62,500 tons; Aisne, 32,500 tons. It is thought that for the whole district there will be a _ deficit of about 100,000 tons for local consumption. In the Department of Finistére the season of 1911 hag proved superior to that of 1910, and the late sorts are specially good, both as regards quality and crop. The estimated yield of potatoes for the whole of Prussia at the beginning of October is 23,377,000 tons, or 4°21 tons per acre, as | compared with 5°76 in i910. According to the latest estimates for Germany, the year’s crop is anticipated to turn out considerably better | than was generally expected, and the production may be taken to— represent nearly three-quarters of an average harvest. In Norway, potatoes have nearly all been gathered in the east and south. The crop | is better than was anticipated, but will fall considerably below the — average in the east. In other districts the crop will be an average, or even over average, one. An especially good crop is expected around | Trondhjem. In Hungary the total production of potatoes is 83,280,000

cwt. The condition of the crop in Austria at the middle of October is | slightly below average. |

The following statement shows _ that, | Prevalence of Anima] according to the information in the possession Diseases on the of the Board on November ist, 1911, certain | Continent. disease of animals existed in the countries | specified :— a Austria (week ending September 20th). Anthrax, Blackleg, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (total of 110,565 Hate now infected), Glanders and Farcy, Swine Fever, Swine Erysipelas, Sheep Scab. . Belgium (fifteen days ending September 30th). se | Anthrax, Blackleg, SEIS Sheep Sy, Sewieaiael: Mouth Dit (1,945 ‘‘foyers”’ in 442 ‘“‘communes’ | Bulgaria (week ending October 14th). Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Swine-fever. Denmark (month of September). Anthrax, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (4 cases).

toit.} ANIMAL DISEASES ON THE CONTINENT. 703

France (month of September). Blackleg, Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Sheep-scab, Swine-fever, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (20,729 ‘“étables’’ in 3,124 ‘‘communes’’).

Germany (on October 15th). Glanders and Farcy, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (34,463 infected places in 5,694 parishes).

Holland (month of September). Anthrax, Foot-rot, Sheep-scab, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (13,477 outbreaks in 11 provinces).

Hungary (week ending September 13th). Anthrax, Glanders and Farcy, Rabies, Swine Erysipelas, Swine- fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (total of 45,561 ‘‘cours”’ now in- fected).

Ttaly (week ending September 24th). Anthrax, Glanders and Farcy, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever, Foot- and-Mouth Disease (350 new cases entailing 3,441 animals).

Montenegro (seventeen days ending June 16th). Foot-and-Mouth Disease (329 ‘‘étables’’ infected in 17 ‘‘com- munes ”’ |

Norway (month of September). Anthrax, Blackleg.

Roumania (nine days ending October 13th). Dourine, Glanders and Farcy, Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Pleuro- pneumonia, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever, Sheep-scab. | |

Russia (month of May). Anthrax, Cattle-plague, Glanders and Farcy, Pleuro-penumonia, Rabies, Sheep-pox, Swine Erysipelas, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (233,160 cases in 2,847 ‘‘communes ).

Servia (eight days ending October 7th).

Anthrax, Rabies, Sheep-pox, SU ICNEN Foot-and-Mouth Disease (414 animals newly infected in 10 ‘arrondissements ’’).

Spain (month of August). Anthrax, Biackleg, Dourine, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (18,642 animals), Glanders and Farcy, Pleuro-pneumonia, Rabies, Sheep- pox, Sheep-scab, Swine Erysipelas, Tuberculosis.

Sweden (month of September).

Anthrax, Blackleg, Swine-fever, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (3 farms). Switzerland (week ending October 22nd).

Anthrax, Blackleg, Swine Erysipelas, Foot-and-Mouth Disease (126

“étables “and 4 “alpages-paturages’’ entailing 1,057 animals, of

which 45 ‘‘étables’’ were declared during the week).

Information respecting rates of wages agreed upon at the prin-

cipal hiring fairs for farm servants held in Scotland in the first six

1 t 7 3 Agricultural ie 1911 has been received by the Board Hirings in Ne aaa : | | With the exception of the North- Scotland.

Eastern counties, the wages of men servants generally remained stationary. The rates, however, showed

} some tendency to harden, and in a number of cases good men who

704 AGRICULTURAL LABOUR DURING OCTOBER. [NOV.,

remained in their former places gained slight advances. In the North-